致谢

Acknowledgments

我要向我的编辑黛安·卡塞拉·海因斯（Diane Casella Hines）表示感谢，她是我完成本书的宝贵“沉默的伙伴”。她像一位木匠大师一样，耐心地将图片和文字拼凑起来，这里修剪一下，那里抹平一下，直到所有的碎片都合适为止。作为一名编辑，她具有设身处地为读者着想的特殊天赋，她仔细检查和润色每一个句子，直到尽可能清楚为止。她巧妙而迅速地完成了这项任务，我非常感激。

I would like to express my appreciation to my editor, Diane Casella Hines, who was my invaluable “silent partner” in bringing this book to completion. Like a master carpenter, she patiently assembled the pictures and text, trimming here and smoothing there, until all the pieces fit. With an editor’s special gift for putting herself in the reader’s shoes, she scrutinized and polished each sentence until it was as clear as she could make it. She has accomplished this task with ingenuity and dispatch, and I am extremely grateful.

内容

Contents

覆盖

Cover

封面

Title Page

版权

Copyright

奉献精神

Dedication

致谢

Acknowledgments

临别赠言

A Parting Word

指数

Index

项目 1

对象的基本结构

PROJECT 1

Basic Structure of Objects

您看到的每个物体都有基于立方体、圆柱体、圆锥体或球体的结构或形式。任何对象都可以基于这四种几何实体中的一种或组合。出于图形目的，实体意味着具有三个维度的对象：高度、宽度和深度。

Every object that you see has a structure or form based on either the cube, the cylinder, the cone, or the sphere. Any object may be based on one or a combination of these four geometric solids. A solid, for our graphic purposes, means an object that has three dimensions: height, width, and depth.

基本结构并不意味着事物是几何上完美的立方体、圆柱体、圆锥体或球体。（当然，它们可以是，例如，方形盒子、圆形罐头或蛋卷冰淇淋。）这意味着物体基于这四种几何实体。物体的形状可以通过各种偏离严格几何形式的方式进行修改（图A）。

Basic structure doesn’t mean that things are geometrically perfect cubes, cylinders, cones, or spheres. (They can be, of course—for example, a square box, a round can, or an ice cream cone.) It means that objects are based on these four geometric solids. The shape of the object is modified in various ways that depart from the strict geometrical form (Figure A).

这个原则对我来说是一个启示。我发现我可以专注于物体的整体尺寸；然后，在闲暇时，我可以添加我想要包含的任何细节。此外，由于四种基本几何形状是立体的，即三维的，因此您可以感受到所绘制的所有内容的体积和重量。

This principle was a revelation to me. I found that I could concentrate on overall dimensions of an object; then, at my leisure, I could add whatever details I wanted to include. In addition, because the four basic geometric forms are solid, i.e., three dimensional, you get a feeling for the bulk and the weight of everything you draw.

在接下来的三个项目中，我们将探索这些基本形式中的第一个——立方体。我们将其压平、拉高或拉长，具体取决于我们表示实际对象的需要（图 B、C、D和E）。有很多东西都以立方体为基本形状，因此从它开始似乎是合乎逻辑的。但在你画立方体之前，你必须练习绘制形成它们的直线。

In the next three projects, we’ll explore the first of these basic forms—the cube. We’ll flatten it down, pull it up, or lengthen it, depending on our needs for representing an actual object (Figures B, C, D, and E). There are so many things that have the cube as their basic shape that it seems logical to begin with it. But before you can draw cubes, you must practice drawing the straight lines that form them.

绘制直线

Drawing Straight Lines

在这个项目中进行练习所需的只是一支标准的“办公室”铅笔和一张绘图纸。我使用了 KOH-I-NOOR #555、2 级铅笔和 Bienfang Company 制造的 #307 广告艺术布局和可视化垫。

All you need to do the exercises in this project is a standard “office” pencil and a pad of drawing paper. I’ve used a KOH-I-NOOR #555, grade #2 pencil, and a #307 Ad Art layout and visualizing pad made by the Bienfang Company.

范围为铅笔和绘图纸的范围如此之广，我什至不会尝试一一列举。实际上，对于您的第一次探索，几乎任何铅笔和任何类型的纸都可以。以后你会更有辨别力。

The range of pencils and drawing papers is so wide that I won’t even attempt to enumerate them. Actually, for your first explorations, almost any pencil and any type of paper will do. Later you’ll be more discriminating.

手绘线条

Drawing Lines Freehand

由于您要绘制的第一个对象主要需要直线，因此让我们研究一下在没有任何机械辅助的情况下制作它们的方法。我希望你徒手画出它们；素描时，尤其是在户外，受尺子和三角形的困扰是很尴尬且不切实际的。此外，与用尺子绘制的冰冷机械线条相比，徒手绘制的线条具有一定的生命力和活力。

Since the first objects you’re going to draw require primarily straight lines, let’s look into ways of making them without any mechanical aids. I want you to draw them freehand; it’s awkward and impractical to be encumbered with rulers and triangles as you sketch, especially outdoors. Besides, there’s a certain life and vibrancy to a line drawn freehand when compared to the cold and mechanical line made with a ruler.

拿着铅笔

Holding the Pencil

尽管人们常说画一条直线非常困难，但如果您使用正确的方法，画一条直线就会变得简单且有趣（图 F）。从这一刻开始。不要拖延。即使你拿铅笔的方式和我的不一样也没关系。

Drawing a straight line, despite the old saw about it being awfully difficult, is easy and fun to do if you use the right approach (Figure F). Begin this very moment. Don’t procrastinate. It doesn’t matter in the least if the way you hold your pencil isn’t the same as mine.

将铅笔保持在通常的书写位置或“手掌下方”，以感觉更舒适为准（图 G和H）。从肘部开始挥动直线，而不是从手腕开始。从手腕处挥杆会使你的划水太短，并且你的线条会变得不稳定和吃力。

Hold your pencil in the usual writing position or “under the palm”, whichever feels more comfortable (Figures G and H). Swing the straight lines from the elbow, not from the wrist. Swinging from the wrist will make your stroke too short and your line will be choppy and labored.

线的角度和方向

Angle and Direction of Lines

通过练习，您将发现画直线的最佳角度。然后，您所要做的就是转动纸张来绘制水平线、垂直线或对角线。全部尝试一下。我个人的选择是从西南方向开始，向东北方向移动。您最喜欢的方向可能是相同的，也可能是一条从西向东延伸的水平线。线的方向并不重要。真正重要的是台词的自发性和直接性。

By practicing, you’ll discover the best angle at which you can draw a straight line. Then, all you have to do is turn the paper to execute a horizontal, a vertical, or a diagonal line. Try them all. My own personal choice is in a northeasterly direction, beginning at the southwest. Your favorite direction may turn out to be the same or it may be a horizontal line that runs from west to east. The direction of the line isn’t important. It’s the spontaneity and directness of the line that really matters.

不要胆怯并在画线时进行简短的尝试。一击将它们击落。没有人会看到或评价它们。放松。放开自己，摆动身体，这样你就可以放松整个手臂。如果你能在任何方向上画一条直线——而不需要转动纸张——你就会被羡慕。立即了解您是否是少数幸运者之一。

Don’t be timid and make short stabs at drawing lines. Dash them off with one stroke. No one is going to see or evaluate them. Relax. Let yourself go, and swing away so that you can limber up your entire arm. If you can draw a straight line in any direction—without turning the paper—you’re to be envied. Find out right now if you’re one of the fortunate few.

图 A.实际物体可以严格遵循四种基本形状——立方体、圆柱体、圆锥体和球体——如上面两行所示。然而，通常它们仅基于这些几何形式。如底行所示，盒子被拉长，但仍然是立方体。在转筒中，圆柱体形状是锥形的；漏斗中的圆锥形状已被截断；苹果尽管有凸起和凹痕，但基本上仍然是球形的。

Figure A. Actual objects can conform rigidly to the four basic forms—cube, cylinder, cone, and sphere—as shown in the top two rows. Usually, however, they’re only based on these geometric forms. As shown in the bottom row, the box is elongated but still cubic. In the tumbler, the cylinder form is tapered; in the funnel, the cone shape has been truncated; and the apple, despite its bulges and indentations, is still basically spherical.

图B。这是几何立方体，其六个面的大小完全相同。

Figure B. This is the geometric cube, with its six sides all exactly the same size.

图C。这是一个立方形式。它不再是等边的，因为它的四个边是矩形，两端是正方形，但它仍然基于立方体。就像四分之一磅黄油。

Figure C. This is a cubic form. It’s no longer equilateral, because four of its sides are rectangular and its ends are square, but it’s still based on the cube. It’s like a quarter pound of butter.

图 D。如果您将一个立方体切成三部分，这就是您将得到的立方体形式之一。

Figure D. If you were to slice a cube into three sections, this is one of the cubic forms that you’d get.

图E。将两个或三个立方体连接在一起就会得到一个像这样的立方体形式——就像一盒饼干。请记住，虽然图 C、D 和 E 不是完美的立方体，但它们的特征是立方体。

Figure E. Joining two or three cubes together would give you a cubic form like this—something like a box of crackers. Remember that although Figures C, D, and E aren’t perfect cubes, they’re cubic in character.

图 F.通过一个动作徒手绘制线条。箭头表明我已经从左到右绘制了所有这些线，只需转动纸张即可获得不同的角度。由于几乎没有一幅绘画不需要一些直线，因此尽可能多地练习绘制直线很重要。

Figure F. Draw lines freehand with one motion. The arrows indicate that I’ve drawn all these lines from left to right, obtaining the different angles simply by turning the paper. Since there’s hardly a drawing that doesn’t require some straight lines, it’s important to practice drawing them as often as possible.

图 G.您可以用两种方式中的任何一种握笔，以感觉更舒服为准。在这里，我以通常的书写姿势握着铅笔。

Figure G. You can hold your pencil in either of two ways, whichever feels the more comfortable. Here I’m holding the pencil in the usual writing position.

图 H.如果您愿意，您可以将铅笔握在“手掌下方”位置，如图所示。这两个位置都同样有效。

Figure H. If you prefer, you may hold your pencil as shown here in the “under the palm” position. Both positions work equally well.

项目2

眼睛水平：基础看法

PROJECT 2

Eye Level: Foundation of Perspective

对于此项目，请使用您在项目 1中使用的同一支铅笔，但同样，任何办公铅笔都可以。事实上，您将在后续项目中使用简单的铅笔，直到我要求您更改为另一种绘图介质。

For this project, use the same pencil that you used in Project 1, but once again, any office pencil will do. As a matter of fact, you’ll use a simple pencil through succeeding projects until I ask you to change to another drawing medium.

我坚信，学生在绘画尝试中失败是因为他们不知道眼睛的水平。事实上，这是一个如此简单的概念，如此看似显而易见，也许正是这种品质导致它被忽视。

It’s my firm belief that students fail in their attempts at drawing because they’re unaware of eye level. Actually, it’s such a simple concept, so seemingly obvious, that perhaps it’s this very quality that causes it to be overlooked.

视平线是指眼睛观察物体的高度。我建议你把这句话写下来，放在你经常看到的地方，让它成为你的一部分。这对你作为艺术家的发展非常重要。

Eye level refers to the height at which your eyes observe an object. I suggest that you write this sentence and place it where you can see it often, so that it becomes part of you. It’s that important to your development as an artist.

改变形状和视线高度

Changing Shapes and Eye Level

为了实际演示我所说的视线水平的含义，我希望您俯卧在地板上。请注意，您看到的是大多数对象的底部，而不是顶部。现在坐起来并注意差异；走到椅子上，再次观察到，当您提高视线水平时，物体的顶部平面就会进入视野。如果你爬上梯子到天花板，你下面的所有东西都会显示出它的顶部平面。听起来很简单，不是吗？嗯，确实如此！

To actually demonstrate what I mean by eye level, I’d like you to lie prone on the floor. Notice that you see the bottom, not the top, of most objects. Now sit up and notice the difference; move to a chair and again observe that as you raise your eye level, the top planes of objects come into view. If you were to climb a ladder to the ceiling, everything below you would show its top plane. Sounds simple enough, doesn’t it? Well it is!

消失点

Vanishing Points

图 A中的立方体是在视线水平处看到的，并且仅显示了其六个面中的两个。它的水平线向下和向上汇聚到各自的消失点。消失点是眼睛水平或地平线上的一个假想点，立方体的平行边缘似乎会聚并相遇。

The cubic form in Figure A is seen at eye level, and shows only two of its six sides. Its horizontal lines converge down to and up to their respective vanishing points. A vanishing point is an imaginary point on the eye level, or horizon, where the parallel edges of a cubic form appear to converge and meet.

会聚线、视线水平和消失点都构成了透视。这个词起源于拉丁语，意思是“看透”。换句话说，你看到一个物体就好像它是透明的一样，你可以看到它的所有侧面——正面和背面。

Converging lines, eye level, and vanishing points all add up to perspective. It’s a word of Latin origin meaning “to look through.” In other words, you view an object as though it were transparent and you could see all its sides—front and back.

实际上，要以透视方式绘制物体所需要做的就是仔细观察。一条边与另一条边相比的角度和长度是多少？一个平面相对于它的邻居的长度和宽度是多少？当你观察一个物体时问自己这些问题将有助于增强你的观察能力。

Actually all you have to do to draw an object in perspective is to observe closely. What’s the angle and length of one edge compared to another? What’s the length and width of a plane in relation to its neighbor? Asking yourself these kinds of questions as you view an object will help sharpen your powers of observation.

图 B中的立方体的所有线条都上升到消失点，因为我将这个立方体放置在视线水平以下。的所有线路图 C中的立方体下降到它们的消失点，因为我将立方体形式放置在视线上方。简而言之，如果立方体处于视线水平，则线条（形成立方体的侧面）从顶部边缘向下，从底部边缘上升到地平线上的消失点。如果立方体形式低于视线水平，则所有会聚线都会上升到地平线上的消失点。如果形状高于视线水平，则所有会聚线都会下降到地平线上的消失点。

The cubic form in Figure B has all its lines rising to the vanishing points because I’ve placed this cube below eye level. All the lines of the cube in Figure C go down to their vanishing points because I’ve placed the cubic form above the eye level. In short, if the cubic form is at eye level, the lines, (that form the sides of the cube) come down from the top edges and go up from the bottom edges to their vanishing points on the horizon. If the cubic form is below eye level, all converging lines go up to vanishing points on the horizon. If the form is above eye level, all the converging lines come down to vanishing points on the horizon.

透视立方体

Cube in Perspective

我选择立方形式作为你的第一个主题，因为它最容易绘制，而且你可以使用直线。此外，立方体清楚地展示了必须在纸张的平坦表面上传达的三个维度（高度、宽度和深度）的幻觉。如果你能描绘出这些维度，那么无论主题是什么，你都能够画出逼真的作品。

I’ve chosen a cubic form as your first subject because it’s the easiest to draw, and you can put your straight lines to work. Furthermore, the cube demonstrates clearly the illusion of the three dimensions—height, width, and depth—that you must convey on the flat surface of the paper. If you can portray these dimensions, you’ll be able to draw realistically, no matter what the subject.

所以从这一刻起，记住一切事物固有的三个维度。自然，每个维度都可能有所不同。立方体物体的高度可以大于其深度，或者宽度可以是三者中最大的尺寸。只要你意识到他们的关系，你就会对自己所取得的进步感到惊讶。

So from this moment, on, remember the three dimensions inherent in everything. Naturally, each dimension can vary. The height of a cubic object can be greater than its depth, or the width can be the largest dimension of the three. As long as you’re aware of their relationship, you’ll be amazed at the progress you’ll make.

现在从食品储藏室中取出一个盒子（任何盒子，无论其形状如何）并将其保持在视线水平。转动它，这样您就只能看到它的两个侧面（见图A）。如果包装上的设计令人分心，请将其上的纸撕掉并使用裸盒。

Now take a box from your pantry—any box, regardless of its shape—and hold it at eye level. Turn it so you can see only two of its sides (see Figure A). If the design on the package proves distracting, tear the paper covering off it and work with the bare box.

判断大小关系

Judging Size Relationships

让我重申一下，写实意味着画得准确。无论您的盒子的比例如何，请检查一侧与另一侧之间的关系。请注意，在我绘制的方框中（图 D），其长度约为宽度的两倍。图 D中的三个盒子是在三个不同的视线高度上看到的。在图 D的三个不同位置绘制盒子。您将使用在项目 1中学到的绘制直线的方法。如果你的盒子和我的盒子形状不一样也没关系。最重要的是，当您将物体升高或降低到您的视野之上或之下时，您要意识到该物体的平面。

Let me reiterate that drawing realistically means drawing accurately. Whatever proportions your box may have, check the relationship between one side and the other. Notice that in the box I’ve drawn (Figure D), its length is about twice its width. The three boxes in Figure D are seen at three different eye levels. Draw your box in the three different positions of Figure D. You’ll be employing the method of drawing straight lines that you learned in Project 1. It won’t matter at all if your box isn’t the same shape as mine. The main thing is for you to be aware of the object’s planes as you raise it or lower it above or below your level of vision.

当您对可以在视线高度绘制立方体形状感到满意时，继续图 D的视图 2 和 3 。请参阅图 A、B和C中的图表。在您绘制的方框中，请确保会聚到消失点 1 和 2 的线条具有适当的倾斜度，即使这些线条无法一直延伸到视线水平上各自的消失点 - 仅仅因为纸张不是“不够大。

When you’re satisfied that you can draw a cubic shape at eye level, continue with views 2 and 3 of Figure D. Refer to the diagrams in Figures A, B, and C. In the boxes you draw be sure that the lines converging to vanishing points 1 and 2 are at the proper slant, even though the lines can’t extend all the way to their respective vanishing points on the eye level—simply because the paper isn’t big enough.

低于视线水平的物体

Objects Below Eye Level

您将绘制的大多数物体（至少在开始时）将位于室内且低于视线水平，因为室内装饰（家具、房间等）已缩放到人类可以操纵的尺寸。因此，将物体绘制在视线以下的原因是很明显的。环顾四周，注意即使您坐着，您也可以看到桌子、椅子、沙发等的顶部。当您可以看到某个物体的顶部时，这意味着它位于视线水平或地平线以下。由于大多数你要做的工作中有一部分是坐着或站着的，我希望你能从那个角度观察事物的外观。

Most of the objects you’ll draw (at least at the beginning) will be indoors and below eye level, because interiors—furniture, rooms, etc.—are scaled to a size that humans can manipulate. Therefore, the reason for drawing objects below eye level is quite obvious. Look around you and notice that even as you sit you can see the tops of tables, chairs, sofas, etc. When you can see the top of an object, it means that it’s below the eye level or horizon. Since most of the work you’ll do will be from a sitting or a standing position, I’d like you to observe the appearance of things from that viewpoint.

练习练习

Practice Exercises

收集四个盒子并将它们画在视线下方不同的距离处。你可以把它们放在一起，然后先画最上面的；删除它并绘制第二个，依此类推，直到绘制第四个。请注意，当您下降到最低的盒子时，您会看到比第一个盒子更多的顶部平面（图 E和F）。完成后比较所有四个平面的顶部平面。

Collect four boxes and draw them at different distances below eye level. You might place them on top of one another and draw the topmost first; remove it and draw the second, and so on until you’ve drawn the fourth. Notice that as you come down to the lowest box, you see more of its top plane than you did on the first box (Figures E and F). Compare the top planes of all four of them when you’ve finished.

这一个和接下来的其他（图 G和H）都是实践练习，它们是不可或缺的。它们不值得挂在墙上，就像钢琴家的练习不值得在音乐厅里表演一样。然而，正如你所知，钢琴家每天进行练习不仅是为了获得他的技术，而且是为了磨练和控制它，即使在他掌握了乐器之后也是如此。如果您还没有翻阅这本书，您会发现您将绘制所有内容，而不仅仅是盒子。但首先你必须站稳脚跟，然后才能跑步。

This one and others to follow (Figures G and H) are practice exercises, and they’re indispensable. They aren’t drawings worthy of being hung on a wall, any more than the pianist’s exercises would be performed in a concert hall. Yet, as you know, the pianist submits to daily practice not only to acquire his technique, but to sharpen and control it, even after he has mastered the instrument. Flip through the pages of this book, if you haven’t done so already, and you’ll see that you’re going to draw everything, not just boxes. But first you must find your feet before you can run.

图 A.在视线高度处，盒子侧面的会聚线从顶部边缘向下，从底部边缘向上，在地平线（或视线高度）上的假想点（称为消失点）处相遇并消失。

Figure A. At eye level the converging lines of the sides of the box come down from the top edges and go up from the bottom edges to meet and vanish at imaginary points on the horizon (or eye level) called vanishing points.

图 B.当立方体物体低于视线水平时，所有会聚线都会上升到各自的消失点。箭头显示平行线延伸至视线水平的方向。

Figure B. When the cubic object is below eye level, all converging lines go up to their respective vanishing points. The arrows show the direction in which the parallel lines extend to the eye level.

图 C.当立方体物体位于视线上方时，所有会聚线都会下降到各自的消失点。

Figure C. When the cubic object is above eye level, all converging lines come down to their respective vanishing points.

图 D.这三个盒子位于三个不同的视线高度：在视图 1 中，盒子位于视线高度；在视图 1 中，盒子处于视线高度；在视图 1 中，盒子处于视线高度。在视图 2 中，盒子位于视线水平线以下；在视图 3 中，盒子位于视线上方。

Figure D. These three boxes are at three different eye levels: in view 1 the box is at eye level; in view 2 the box is below eye level; and in view 3 the box is above eye level.

图E：随着物体距离视线水平越来越远，它的垂直线越来越短，消失点也越来越远离物体。

Figure E. As an object gets farther away from the eye level, its verticals get shorter and its vanishing points get farther away from the object.

图 F。如果您倒过来查看该图像，您会发现当您抬头看该物体时，同样的原理也适用。在这个和接下来的项目中，消失点通常会超出论文的边界。

Figure F. If you were to view this imageupside down, you would see that the same principle applies when you’re looking up at the object. In this and the following projects, the vanishing points will usually be beyond the borders of your paper.

图 G.问问自己，物体的线条与水平方向的距离（向上或向下）有多少，如视图 1 所示。如果对角线不正确，您将得到视图 2 所示的扭曲。请注意，视图 3 中的正确角度为您提供了正确的形状，因为对角线延伸到更远的消失点。

Figure G. Ask yourself how much the line of an object departs—up or down—from the horizontal, as the diagram shows at view 1. If the diagonals are incorrect, you’ll get the distortion shown at view 2. Note that the proper angle at view 3 gives you the correct form, because the diagonals run farther out to their vanishing points.

图 H。如果将立方体正方放置在您面前且仅一侧可见，则完全没有问题，如视图 1 所示。水平面保持水平且无需检查角度。但请注意，您失去了立方体的坚固感，它变成了一个扁平的矩形。当两侧可见时，如视图 2 所示，立方体开始传达出体积感。这里只有一个消失点；这称为单点透视。当显示三个边时，如视图 3 所示，水平线变成了对角线，但立方体的体积和它所占据的空间是毫无疑问的。

Figure H. A cubic form presents no problem at all if you place it squarely in front of you with only one side visible, as seen at view 1. The horizontals remain horizontal and there’s no angle to check. But notice that you lose the cube’s sense of solidity and it becomes a flat rectangle. The moment two sides are visible, as in view 2, the cube begins to convey a sense of bulk. There’s only one vanishing point here; this is called one point perspective. When three sides are shown, as in view 3, the horizontals have become diagonals, but there’s no question about the cube’s volume and the space it occupies.

项目3

绘画立方体物体

PROJECT 3

Drawing Cubic Objects

您将使用在前两个项目中使用的同一支“办公室”铅笔，但现在我希望您有几个绘图板。它们有不同的尺寸：9英寸×12英寸、11英寸×14英寸、12英寸×18英寸、14英寸×17英寸和19英寸×24英寸。不要让推销员向您推销任何精美或昂贵的纸张；在您目前的发展阶段没有必要。此外，您将在练习中使用大量它。所以买最便宜的；它将完全满足您在这些初始项目中的目的。

You’ll use the same “office” pencil that you’ve used in the two preceding projects, but now I’d like you to get several drawing pads. They come in varying sizes: 9″ × 12″, 11″ × 14″, 12″ × 18″, 14″ × 17″, and 19″ × 24″. Don’t let a salesman sell you any fancy or expensive paper; it’s not necessary at this stage of your development. Besides, you’re going to use reams of it in the exercises alone. So get the cheapest; it will be perfectly adequate for your purposes in these beginning projects.

日常事物中的立方形式

Cubic Forms in Everyday Things

现在你就会明白为什么我在光秃秃的盒子上呆了这么久了。我想让你看看当你转动、降低和升高立方体时会发生什么。该项目中的图形仅代表以立方体为基础结构的数千个对象中的一部分。一般来说，它们不会是完美的等边立方体。但无论它们是长、窄、薄还是短、宽、厚，它们仍然会通过具有顶部、底部和四个侧面来符合立方体。

Now you’ll see why I dwelt so long on bare boxes. I wanted you to see what happens to a cubic form as you turn it, lower it, and raise it. The figures in this project represent only some of the thousands of objects that have the cube as their underlying structure. As a rule, they won’t be perfect equilateral cubes. But whether they’re long, narrow, and thin or short, wide, and thick they’ll still conform to the cube by having a top, a bottom, and four sides.

用线条搜索

Searching with Lines

考虑到这一点，画出你的电视机、一盒纸巾、一张桌子和你的厨房灶台等（图 A、B、C、D和E）。坐下来，将垫放在膝盖上，注意这些物体顶部平面的长度与宽度的比较。观察各边之间的关系以及与整个物体的宽度和高度的关系。

With this in mind, draw your television set, a box of tissues, one of your tables, and your kitchen range, etc. (Figures A, B, C, D, and E). Sit with your pad on your knees and notice the length compared to the width of the top plane of these objects. Observe the relation of the sides to each other and also to the width and height of the entire object.

当您搜索平面的正确宽度、高度或深度时，您会画出许多不准确的线条。不要删除它们。继续搜索其他线路，直到您对找到正确的线路感到满意为止。用铅笔在正确的线条上用力强调它们。将一张新纸放在你的物体上，然后只挑选出正确的线条，就像我在这个项目中对绘图所做的那样。

As you search for the correct width, height, or depth of a plane, you’ll draw many inaccurate lines. Don’t erase them. Keep searching with other lines until you feel satisfied that you’ve got the right ones. Accent your correct lines by bearing down on them with your pencil. Place a fresh sheet of paper over your object and pick out only the correct lines, as I’ve done with the drawings in this project.

如果在这个阶段电视机或射程证明太困难，那么就画一个手提箱或一盒火柴。当您获得更多信心后，您可以返回到更复杂的主题。

If the television set or the range prove too difficult at this stage, then draw a suitcase or a box of matches. When you’ve gained more confidence, you can return to the more complex subjects.

我真诚地希望你能解决一切问题。如果你的牌仍然有点不愿意执行你的命令，就让它滞后。它会满足您的需求——总是如此。训练你的眼睛去观察、衡量和比较正确的关系更为重要。目前，只要你的画是正确的，就让你的画变得费力甚至粗糙。我向你保证，设施会及时到位。

I sincerely wish you’d tackle everything. If your hand is still a bit reluctant to do your bidding, let it lag. It will catch up with your demands—it always does. The training of your eye to observe, to weigh, and to compare correct relationships is more important. For the moment, let your drawing be labored or even crude, as long as it’s correct. Facility will come in time, I assure you.

处理细节

Handling Detail

当您确定对象的整体比例正确时，请继续处理它可能具有的任何细节。例如，对于电视机，判断旋钮与其边缘的距离，以及旋钮的尺寸与其所占据的平面的宽度的关系。旋钮是否位于该平面的中心？如果不是，偏离中心多少？

When you’re sure that the overall proportions of your object are correct, proceed to whatever detail it may have. For example, with a television, judge the distance that a knob might be from its edge, as well as the knob’s size in relation to the width of the plane that it occupies. Is the knob centered on that plane? If not, how much off-center is it?

如果您的对象是一张桌子，其细节仅由添加到其顶部的腿组成，那么这些腿相对于其高度或侧板的宽度有多厚？如果您的对象是一个书柜，并且细节由其中的书籍组成，那么书架中央的书籍的高度和宽度是多少？下一根有多短多粗？

If your object is a table and its detail consists only of legs to be added to its top, how thick are these legs in relation to their height or the width of the side panel? If your object is a bookcase and detail consists of books within it, what’s the height and width of the book in the center of the shelf? How short and thick is the next one?

我必须再次强调，大平面和尺寸必须正确确定。然后，您可以将大形状细分为较小的形状，然后再将这些形状再次划分，直到获得最微小的细节。

I must emphasize again that the large planes and dimensions must be established correctly. You can then subdivide the large shapes into smaller ones, and these in turn should be divided again until you get to the minutest detail.

以书柜为例，首先要确定其整体比例；然后应确定一个或多个货架的放置位置。接下来，可以以适当的宽度和高度来描绘书籍，然后是每本书书脊上的细节。

Using the bookcase as an example, its overall proportions must be established first; then the placement of the shelf or shelves should be determined. Next, the books can be delineated in their proper width and height, followed by the detail on the spine of each book.

精炼用描图纸

Refining with Tracing Paper

首先画出房间里你周围的每个立方体物体。当您觉得它们的基本立方比例是正确的时，然后，只有到那时，才开始添加对象可能具有的任何细节。

Begin by drawing every cubic object in the room about you. When you feel that their basic cubic proportions are correct, then, and only then, start adding whatever details the objects may have.

在该项目的图 A到图G中，对象分两个阶段绘制。在每对图左边的图中，请注意，当我寻找物体的正确比例时，我是多么粗略地指示了物体的整体形状。找到这些比例后，我将这些正确的线条变暗。切勿擦除。一旦开始擦除，您就失去了比较正确与不正确的形状和尺寸的方法。

In Figures A through G of this project, there are objects drawn in two stages. In the drawing on the left of each pair of drawings, notice how roughly I indicated the overall shape of the object as I searched for its proper proportions. Once having found these proportions, I darkened these correct lines. Never erase. Once you begin to erase, you lose your means of comparing correct to incorrect shapes and dimensions.

确定了这些正确的比例后，我将一张新纸（最好是描图纸）放在第一张图纸上并“清理它”。也就是说，我只将正确的线条转移到新纸上。虽然您不必使用描图纸，但显然您必须使用足够透明的纸张，以便您可以看到下面的绘图。

Having established these corrected proportions I place a fresh sheet of paper (preferably tracing paper) over the first drawing and “clean it up”. That is, I transfer only the correct lines to the new sheet of paper. Although you don’t have to use tracing paper, you obviously must use paper that’s transparent enough for you to see the drawing beneath it.

如果第二张纸上仍然存在一些不准确之处，请用新行更正它们。将另一张新纸放在上面并转移正确的绘图。在该项目的图 A到图G中，每对右侧的图都是经过修正、精炼的图。

If some inaccuracies still remain on your second sheet, correct them with new lines. Place another new sheet of paper over them and transfer the corrected drawing. In Figures A through G of this project, the drawing on the right of each pair is the corrected, refined one.

图A。对于这台电视，或者对于任何物体，记住先画大的形状；然后您可以添加详细信息。

Figure A. With this television, or with any object, remember to draw the big shapes first; then you can add the details.

图 B.请注意，断开的“准则”表明该表是立方形式。

Figure B. Note that the broken “guidelines” indicate that the table is a cubic form.

图 C。这个纸巾盒是最简单的形式，也是一个很好的开始。

Figure C. This tissue box is the simplest form and a good one to begin with.

图 D。这里的所有五个物体都低于视线水平。请注意，每个对象都会显示其顶面和两侧。

Figure D. All five objects here are below eye level. Note that each object reveals its top plane and two of its sides.

图 E.对于这三个对象，我使用了广告艺术布局和可视化板以及标准办公铅笔。在每一对中，左边的图是暂定的。我与它建立了比例。正确的、精致的绘图位于右侧。

Figure E. For these three objects I’ve used the Ad Art layout and visualizing pad and a standard office pencil. In each pair, the drawing on the left is tentative. I establish proportions with it. The corrected, refined drawing is on the right.

图 F。在这三对图中的每一对图中，我开始使用左侧的草图寻找正确的尺寸。我从来不抹去。如果一个角度或一条线不正确，我只需再画一条。将正确的线条变暗后，我将它们转移到一张新纸上，并在每对右侧看到的校正后的绘图上进行工作。

Figure F. In each of these three pairs of drawings I begin searching for correct dimensions with the sketch on the left. I never erase. If an angle or a line is incorrect, I simply draw another. After darkening the correct lines, I transfer them to a fresh sheet and work on the corrected drawing that you see on the right of each pair.

图 G.如果物体的平面有圆角，首先使用方角建立该平面的正确比例。稍后，当您的绘图完善后，您可以将角修圆。如果边缘稍微弯曲，则适用相同的规则。把它画直；然后再强调其凸面或凹面特征。

Figure G. If the plane of an object has rounded corners, first establish the correct proportions of that plane using square corners. Later, when your drawing is refined, you can round the corners off. If an edge curves slightly, the same rule applies. Draw it straight; then later on accentuate its convex or concave character.

项目 4

绘图圆柱形物体

PROJECT 4

Drawing Cylindrical Objects

画了这么多直线之后，我相信你现在可以轻松自信地画出来了。当您继续进行未来的项目时，它们会变得更加容易。但如果你要根据圆柱体、圆锥体或球体绘制物体，你还必须练习绘制形成它们的曲线。

After doing so many drawings with straight lines, I’m sure that you can now do them with ease and confidence. They’ll become still easier as you continue with future projects. But if you’re to draw objects based on the cylinder, the cone, or the sphere, you must also practice drawing the curved lines that form them.

绘制曲线

Drawing Curved Lines

再次，将铅笔（仍然是普通的“办公室”类型）握在您喜欢的任何位置：通常的书写位置，或“在手掌下”。如果你的工作量很大，从肘部开始摆动手臂，甚至从肩膀开始摆动。一开始可能会感觉很尴尬，但要坚持下去，直到感觉舒服为止。如果你妨碍了你的现在通过手腕进行渲染——因为它“感觉更自然”——美丽的流畅线条将永远不会属于你。

Again, hold the pencil (still the ordinary “office” kind) in whichever position you prefer: the usual writing one, or “under the palm.” Swing your arm from the elbow, and even from the shoulder, if you work big. It may feel awkward at first, but persevere until you feel comfortable. If you hamper your rendering now by working from the wrist—because it “feels more natural”—the beautiful sweep of a fluid line will never be yours.

我在本书第一部分中唯一考虑的是传达优秀绘画的原则。稍后我们将探讨这条线及其表现力。在这里，让我再说一遍，你的线条的唯一目的是建立你所画的一切的光学正确性或“真实性”。

My only consideration in this first section of the book is to convey the principles of good drawing. Later we’ll explore the line and its expressive power. Here, let me repeat, the only purpose of your lines is to establish the optical correctness or “reality” of everything you draw.

观察圆柱形

Observing Cylindrical Forms

无论圆柱形物体是什么，您都必须首先看到圆柱体本身，无论该物体可能具有什么细节。在开始阶段，最好先绘制几何圆柱体，然后进行所需的修改，就像我在项目结束时用罐子进行的演示中所做的那样。稍后您可以省去几何圆柱体的绘制，直接开始绘制圆柱体本身（图 A和B）。

No matter what the cylindrical object, you must first see the cylinder itself, underlying whatever detail the object may have. In the beginning stages it’s a good idea to draw the geometric cylinder first, and then make the required modifications, as I’ve done in the demonstrations with the pots at the end of the project. Later you can dispense with the drawing of the geometric cylinder and begin straightaway with the cylindrical object itself (Figures A and B).

渲染圆柱形物体

Rendering Cylindrical Objects

我个人绘制圆柱体的方法是以逆时针方向粗化整个椭圆（形成圆柱体顶部和底部的圆）。然后，我通过用较重的笔画强调正确的曲率来细化椭圆的可见侧。

My personal approach to drawing a cylinder is to rough in the entire ellipse (the circle that forms a cylinder’s top and bottom) in a counterclockwise direction. Then I refine the ellipse’s visible side by accentuating the correct curvature with heavier strokes.

您可能会发现顺时针旋转铅笔更容易。两者都练习并坚持你的喜好；重要的是更好的结果，而不是实现结果的方式。请务必检查物体侧面与几何圆柱体垂直方向的偏离角度（任何凹痕和凸出）。

You may find it easier to rotate your pencil in a clockwise manner. Practice both and stay with your preference; the better result is what counts, not the way the result is achieved. Be sure that you check the angle of departure—any indents and bulges—of the object’s sides from the vertical of the geometric cylinder.

椭圆和透视

Ellipses and Perspective

绘制圆柱体时，请记住，在视线高度处，其椭圆看起来是一条直线。当椭圆上升到视线水平或地平线以上时，其最靠近您的边缘会呈弧形弯曲。当椭圆下降到视线以下时，弧线会反转，距离您最近的边缘会向下弯曲。

When drawing the cylinder remember that at eye level its ellipse appears to be a straight line. As the ellipse rises above eye level, or the horizon, its edge nearest you curves up in an arc. As the ellipse descends below eye level, the arc is reversed and the edge nearest you curves down.

从柜子里取出一块玻璃，根据需要多次绘制，以使椭圆正确（见图C、D和E）。在绘制玻璃之前，将其升高到正好与视线水平，使其顶部形成一条完美的直线（图 C中的视线水平线）；请注意，玻璃的底部低于视线水平，形成一个椭圆形。现在逐渐降低你的手臂，你会发现玻璃的顶部变成了一个椭圆形，随着你越来越降低玻璃，它变得越来越宽。最后，当玻璃的顶部位于您的正下方时，椭圆就会变成实际的完整圆形（见图D，视图 1）。

Get a glass from your cabinet and draw it as many times as necessary to get the ellipses correct (see Figures C, D, and E). Before you draw the glass, raise it to exactly eye level, so that its top makes a perfectly straight line (the eye-level line in Figure C); notice that the bottom of the glass, being below eye level, forms an ellipse. Now lower your arm gradually and notice that the top of the glass becomes an ellipse that gets wider and wider as you lower the glass more and more. Finally, when the top of the glass is directly below you, the ellipse becomes the full circle that it actually is (see Figure D, view 1).

如果你画的玻璃与我的不一样也没关系。这样做的目的项目只是训练你的眼睛和手来观察和渲染你正在绘制的物体形状下的刚性圆柱体可能发生的任何修改和偏离。杯子上把手的正确位置、玻璃杯柄的高度以及玻璃杯上下椭圆的不同深度，都是观察和绘制这些圆柱形物体时必须考虑的因素。请记住，当椭圆接近眼睛水平或地平线时，它会变得更浅，而当椭圆远离眼睛时，它会变得更深。

It doesn’t matter if the glass you draw doesn’t resemble mine. The purpose of this project is simply to train your eye and hand to observe and render whatever modifications and departures there may be from the rigid cylinder that underlies the shape of the object you’re drawing. The correct placement of a handle on a cup, the height of a stem on a glass and the different depths of the upper and lower ellipses of a glass are factors that must be considered when observing and drawing these cylindrical objects. Remember that as an ellipse nears the eye level, or horizon, it gets shallower, and that as the ellipse gets farther away, it gets deeper.

图 A 和 B。无论您绘制圆柱形、立方体还是球形，请记住它们占据给定的空间（即它们具有所有三个维度）。即使你在纸的平坦表面上绘画，你也必须传达这三个维度的幻觉。研究此处用箭头指示的物体的尺寸。

Figures A and B. Whether you draw cylindrical, cubic, or spherical forms, remember that they occupy a given space (that is, they have all three dimensions). Even though you draw on the flat surface of paper, you must convey the illusion of these three dimensions. Study the dimensions of the objects indicated here with arrows.

图 C.始终注意视线水平；物体的真实外观取决于它。请注意，眼镜的顶部椭圆形比相应的底部椭圆形更浅，因为顶部椭圆形更接近眼睛水平，而底部椭圆形距离眼睛水平更远。

Figure C. Always be aware of eye level; the true appearance of objects depends upon it. Notice that the top ellipses of the glasses are shallower than their corresponding bottom ones, because the top ellipses are closer to the eye level and the bottom ones are farther from it.

图 D.取出您可能拥有的任何已打开的瓶子。将其笔直向下握住，并保持一臂距离，请注意，瓶子的边缘是一个完美的圆形，如视图 1 所示。但是，当您将瓶子提高到视线水平时，椭圆形会变得越来越浅；请参见视图 2、3 和 4。请注意，当您将瓶子举至与眼睛齐平时，瓶唇的后部和前部会变窄，但瓶唇的左端和右端仍保持相同的宽度。

Figure D. Take any opened bottle you may have. Hold it straight down at arm’s length, and note that the lip of the bottle is a perfect circle, as in view 1. But the ellipse gets more and more shallow as you raise the bottle to eye level; see views 2, 3, and 4. Notice that while the back and front of the bottle’s lip get narrower as you lift the bottle to eye level, the left and right ends of the lip remain the same width.

图E。当一个圆柱形物体侧放时，就像这个酒瓶一样，椭圆垂直于圆柱形的中心轴。

Figure E. When a cylindrical object is placed on its side, like this wine bottle, the ellipses are perpendicular to the central axis of the cylindrical form.

花盆，第 1 步：首先我画一个真正的圆柱体。然后我确定锅的边长和边缘的宽度。

Flower Pot, Step 1: First I draw a true cylinder. Then I determine the sides of the pot and the width of its rim.

花盆，第 2 步：我将正确的线条变暗，然后在图画上放一张新纸并转移这些变暗的线条，从而“清理”我的图画。

Flower Pot, Step 2: I darken the correct lines, then place a fresh sheet of paper over the drawing and transfer these darkened lines, thereby “cleaning up” my drawing.

烹饪锅，第 1 步：同样，我首先绘制整个几何圆柱体。我观察锅的深度和宽度与其高度的关系，并指出盖子的尺寸。

Cooking Pot, Step 1: Again, I draw the entire geometric cylinder first. I observe the depth and the width of the pot in relation to its height, and indicate the dimensions of the lid.

烹饪锅，第 2 步：这是精致的绘图。我仍然需要确定从盖子底部到侧手柄顶部的距离，以及确定侧手柄的倾斜度。

Cooking Pot, Step 2: Here’s the refined drawing. I still have to determine the distance from the bottom of the lid to the top of the side handles, as well as establish the slant of the side handles.

咖啡壶，第 1 步：在实际实践中，这些强调的指导方针如果绘制的话，会非常轻，并且足以建立关系和检查点。

Coffee Pot, Step 1: In actual practice, these accentuated guidelines would be very light—if drawn at all—and just visible enough to establish relationships and checkpoints.

咖啡壶，第 2 步：按照前面演示中使用的程序，我将一张新纸放在第一张草图上，并仅绘制咖啡壶本身。

Coffee Pot, Step 2: Following the procedure used in the preceding demonstrations, I place a fresh sheet of paper over the first rough drawing and draw only the pot itself.

项目5

绘画球形物体

PROJECT 5

Drawing Spherical Objects

除了形成球结构的明显、完美的球体之外——无论是高尔夫球、网球还是篮球——还有一些物体以一种或另一种形式参与球体。鸡蛋、坚果、苹果和橙子都有一个修改后的球体作为其基本的基本形式（图 A）。碗、杯子和茶壶等物体可以基于球体的一部分。

Besides the obvious, perfect spheres that form the structure of a ball—whether a golf, tennis, or basketball—there are those objects which partake of the sphere in one form or another. An egg, a nut, an apple, and an orange all have a modified sphere as their basic underlying form (Figure A). Objects such as a bowl, a cup, and a tea kettle can be based on part of a sphere.

离开几何球体

Departures from the Geometric Sphere

与几何球体的偏离有时可能相当激进，但图 B中的所有物体都是基于它的。例如，在足球中，球体的两端都是锥形的；在 Silex 咖啡机中，有一个完整的球体和另一个球体的三分之二；在头盔中，完整的球体由虚线显示。最后，图 B中的灯泡实际上是一个附有圆柱体的球体。

The departures from the geometric sphere may be quite radical at times, but all the objects in Figure B are based upon it. For example, in the football the sphere is tapered at both ends; in the Silex coffeemaker there’s one complete sphere and two-thirds of another; and in the helmet the complete sphere is shown by the broken line. Finally the light bulb in Figure B is actually a sphere with a cylinder attached to it.

当绘制任何结构为球形的物体时，首先绘制完整的球体；然后添加您的特定对象所需的出发时间。您应该问自己有关比例的问题，就像您在绘制其他形式时所问的问题一样。你的物体与你最初绘制的作为其基础的几何球体有多少偏离（变平、凸起或弯曲）？

When drawing any object that’s structurally spherical, draw the complete sphere first; then add the required departures that your particular object demands. You should ask yourself the same questions concerning proportion that you asked when drawing other forms. How much does your object depart—flatten, bulge, or bend—from the geometric sphere you first drew as its basis?

收集所有你能找到的球形物体，并把它们画成你想要的任何尺寸。但我建议你画得大一些，这样你可以自由地挥动铅笔。

Gather all the spherical objects you can find and draw them in any size you wish. But I advise you to draw rather large, so that you can swing your pencil freely.

深度和球体

Depth and the Sphere

绘制时，请记住球体占据给定的空间；它不是一个扁平的磁盘。手里拿着一个苹果或橙子，感受它的体积。尝试在绘图中表达这个体积和重量。在该项目结束时的演示中，我通过苹果和橙子上的椭圆以及它们所基于的几何球体来表示这种三维感觉。

As you draw, remember that a sphere occupies a given space; it is not a flat disk. Hold an apple or orange in your hand and feel its bulk. Try to convey this volume and weight in your drawing. In the demonstrations at the end of this project, I’ve indicated this three-dimensional feeling by the ellipses on the apple and orange, and on the geometric spheres upon which they’re based.

图 A.球体提供了这个鸡蛋和这个坚果的基本形状。请记住，球体具有三个维度。蛋形上的椭圆有助于强调其深度。

Figure A. A sphere provides the basic form for both this egg and this nut. Remember that a sphere has three dimensions. The ellipses on the egg shape help to emphasize its depth.

图 B。虽然经过某种方式修改，但这些对象中的每一个都是基于球体的。注意穿过每个对象中心的光铅笔线。这条线帮助我建立物体左右两侧的对称性。它还帮助我在足球和灯泡上绘制椭圆，使它们垂直于中心轴。

Figure B. Though modified in some way, each of these objects is based on the sphere. Notice the light pencil line through the center of each object. This line aids me in establishing the symmetry of the left and right sides of the objects. It also helps me to draw the ellipses on the football and light bulb so that they’re perpendicular to their central axes.

苹果和橙子，第 1 步：对于这些水果，与任何基于球体的水果一样，我首先绘制完整的几何球体。我还画了椭圆来帮助我建立球体的第三个维度——深度。

Apples and Oranges, Step 1: With these fruits, as with any piece of fruit based on the sphere, I first draw the complete, geometric sphere. I also draw in ellipses to help me establish the third dimension of the sphere—depth.

苹果和橙子，第 2 步：一旦确定了基本形状，我就可以添加任何使特定水果独特的东西：它的凸起、质地和茎。

Apples and Oranges, Step 2: Once I establish the basic form, then I can add whatever departures make the particular fruit unique: its bulges, texture, and stem.

茶杯，第 1 步：有些物体的结构中只有球体的一部分。即便如此，我还是首先绘制完整的球体，如虚线所示。请注意我的椭圆如何确定球体的深度，并赋予其体积。

Tea Cup, Step 1: Some objects have only a part of a sphere in their structure. Even so, I begin by drawing the complete sphere, as indicated by the broken line. Notice how my ellipse establishes the depth of the sphere, giving it volume.

茶杯，第 2 步：现在我继续对球体进行修改，将其变成杯子。我省略了虚线，只处理球体的下半部分。

Tea Cup, Step 2: Now I proceed to add the modifications to the sphere that can turn it into a cup. I omit the broken line and work only with the bottom half of the sphere.

项目 6

绘图圆锥形物体

PROJECT 6

Drawing Conical Objects

现在让我们来讨论四种基本形式中的最后一种：圆锥体。很自然地，第一个出现在脑海中的物体是蛋卷冰淇淋。但也有瓶子、玻璃杯、灯罩、碗和许多其他具有圆锥体形状的人造物体。还有无数的圆锥形自然创造物——贝壳、花朵和树木（图A）。

Now let’s tackle the last of the four basic forms: the cone. Quite naturally, the first object that pops into mind is an ice-cream cone. But there are bottles, glasses, lampshades, bowls, and many other man-made objects with shapes based upon a cone. There are also countless creations of nature—sea shells, flowers, and trees—with conical shapes (Figure A).

当你开始画画的时候圆锥形物体，请记住，圆锥体是从圆形基部到一点均匀逐渐变细的实心物体。首先在您绘制的物体中寻找这种形状，无论它是像啤酒杯一样长而薄，还是像灯罩一样短而宽（图B）。

When you begin to draw conical objects, remember that a cone is a solid mass that tapers uniformly from a circular base to a point. Look for this form first in the object you’re drawing, whether it’s long and thin like a beer glass, or short and broad like a lampshade (Figure B).

圆锥体的对称性

Symmetry of the Cone

绘制对称圆锥体的最佳方法是从中心线开始。然后绘制与该中心线成直角的椭圆。根据圆锥体的高度，在中心线上标记圆锥体尖端所在的位置。确定了底部和尖端后，从尖端到椭圆的两端画两条对角线以形成基本圆锥体就很简单了。（参见蛋卷冰淇淋演示。）现在您可以开始添加与您的特定对象相关的任何细节。

The best way to draw a symmetrical cone is to begin with a center line. Then draw the ellipse at right angles to this center line. Mark the place on the center line where the tip of the cone should be, depending on its height. Having established the base and the tip, it’s a simple matter to run two diagonal lines from the tip to the ends of the ellipse to form the basic cone. (See the Ice Cream Cone demonstration.) Now you can begin to add whatever details pertain to your particular object.

绘画一切

Drawing Everything

画出尽可能多的圆锥形。当您完成本项目的最后一个演示后，您将取得很大的成就。能够以正确的比例画出我建议的所有物体，这确实是一项了不起的成就。如果你掌握了四种基本形式，你就可以画出任何存在的东西。想象！这正是我们在下一个项目中要做的事情。

Draw as many conical forms as you can find. When you’re finished with the last demonstration in this project, you’ll have achieved a great deal. It’s really a fine accomplishment to be able to draw—in their correct proportions—all the objects I’ve suggested. If you’ve mastered the four basic forms, you can draw anything in existence. Imagine! That’s exactly what we’re going to do in the next project.

图 A.大自然为我们提供了许多基于圆锥体的物体。这种贝壳有两个圆锥体构成其结构。为了达到适当的比例，首先你必须忽略贝壳相当复杂的细节。我已经指出了两个圆锥体的形状及其在大贝壳中的相对位置。

Figure A. Nature provides us with many objects that are based on the cone. This sea shell has two cones forming its construction. In order to achieve its proper proportions, you must ignore, at first, the shell’s rather elaborate detail I have indicated the two cone forms and their relative positions within the large sea shell.

图 B.几何锥体可以呈现任意数量的变化，具体取决于特定的物体。它可以是细长的和薄的，如啤酒杯，也可以是压缩的和宽的，如鸡尾酒杯和灯罩。无论怎样修改，首先要找出基本的圆锥体形状；然后开始绘制你的物体。

Figure B. The geometric cone can assume any number of variations, depending upon the particular object. It can be elongated and thin, as in the beer glass, or compressed and broad, as in the cocktail glass and lampshade. Regardless of its modifications, you should first search out the basic cone shape; then begin to draw your object.

蛋卷冰淇淋，第 1 步：我首先绘制整个几何圆锥体。请注意，我通过圆锥体中心绘制的线如何帮助我建立正确的比例，从而建立圆锥体的对称性。

Ice Cream Cone, Step 1: I begin by drawing the entire geometric cone. Notice how the line which I draw through the cone’s center helps me establish the proper proportions and thus, the cone’s symmetry.

冰淇淋蛋卷，第 2 步：确定了蛋卷的尺寸后，我开始通过添加细节来脱离几何形状。细节将这个几何形状转化为一个可识别的物体，一个蛋卷冰淇淋。

Ice Cream Cone, Step 2: Having established the dimensions of the cone, I begin to depart from the geometric form by adding detail. The detail transforms this geometric shape into a recognizable object, an ice cream cone.

项目 7

将基本表格组合在一起

PROJECT 7

Putting Basic Forms Together

现在真正的满足感和随之而来的绘画乐趣开始了。由于您可以绘制所有基本形式，因此您可以开始将它们组合在一起；现在您将能够绘制任何您想要的对象。无论你的主题有多复杂，绘制它都只是组合基本形式的问题。

Now the real satisfaction and consequent enjoyment of drawing begins. Since you can draw all the basic forms, you can begin to put them together; now you’ll be able to draw any object you wish. No matter how complex your subject may be, drawing it is only a matter of combining basic forms.

基本形式及其关系

Basic Forms and Their Relationships

你必须安排你的基本形式——无论是复杂的、由许多部分组成的，还是简单的、仅由两个部分组成的（图A）——以便它们在大小和位置上相互关联。当您绘制复杂的对象时，也应该问自己在观察和绘制由单一基本形式组成的对象时问自己的相同问题。一个基本形状相对于另一个基本形状有多高、多宽和多深？

You must arrange your basic forms—whether complex and composed of many parts, or simple and made up of only two (Figure A)—so that they relate to each other in both size and position. The same questions you asked yourself when observing and drawing an object composed of a single basic form should also be asked when you draw a complex object. How high, how wide, and how deep is one basic shape in relation to another?

寻找多条线的基本形状的比例；不要删除其中任何一个。通过这种方式，您将能够比较和对比比例并建立正确的形状。一旦你的总体比例正确，你就可以在你的主题上放一张新纸并清理你的图画。

Search for the proportions of your basic forms with many lines; don’t erase any of them. In this way you’ll be able to compare and contrast proportions and establish correct shapes. Once you have the general proportions correct, you can place a fresh sheet of paper over your subject and clean up your drawing.

绘画对称物体

Drawing Symmetrical Objects

建立玻璃、灯或烛台等物体的对称性对于获得正确的形状至关重要。按照我在图 B中所做的那样，绘制穿过对象的中心线。接下来，画出物体的左侧轮廓；然后把你的画翻过来。注册您的中心线，并从左侧沿着右侧的轮廓到另一张纸上。现在，物体的两侧应该完全一样——对称。然后，再拿一张纸，描出整个物体，并通过消除任何不正确的线条来完善您的绘图。

Establishing the symmetry of such objects as glasses, lamps, or candlesticks is vital to attaining their correct shape. Draw the center line through your object as I’ve done in Figure B. Next, draw the left contour of your object; then flop your drawing over. Register your center line and trace the contour of the right side from your left one onto another sheet of paper. Both sides of your object should now be perfectly alike—symmetrical. Then, taking still another sheet of paper, trace the entire object and refine your drawing by eliminating any incorrect lines.

绘画与观察

Drawing and Observation

你可以画任何东西。四种基本几何形状为您提供了无限的可能性。但你必须能够仔细辨别物体背后的基本形状。有时，它们几乎完全被大量的细节所掩盖；有时，它们会被大量的细节所掩盖。有时，一个物体会由许多单独的基本形式组成，以至于很难区分每个单独的形式。

You can draw anything. With the four basic geometric shapes, the possibilities open to you are endless. But you must be able to carefully discern the basic shapes underlying objects. Sometimes they’ll be almost totally obscured by a wealth of detail; sometimes one object will be composed of so many individual basic forms that it will be hard to distinguish each separate form.

因此，你必须提高你的视觉能力。你必须做的不仅仅是看，你必须观察。您必须学会思考您所看到的内容，并问自己有关物体的相对比例和尺寸的基本问题。观察将在即将到来的项目中发挥重要作用，您将在其中绘制与地平线相关的对象。也就是说，您将以透视方式绘制对象。

Therefore, you must sharpen your visual powers. You must do more than see, you must observe. You must learn to think about what you’re viewing and ask yourself basic questions concerning an object’s relative proportions and dimensions. Observation will play an important part in the coming project where you’ll draw objects in relation to the horizon. That is, you’ll draw objects in perspective.

图 A 和 B。尽管有很多棱纹（即细节），这个调味瓶看起来比实际情况更复杂。然而，它仅由三种基本形状组成：圆锥体、球体和圆柱体。

Figures A and B. With all its ribbing (that is, detail) this cruet seems more complicated than it actually is. However, it’s only composed of three basic shapes: cone, sphere, and cylinder.

图C。这个橙色挤压器以及随后的防风灯在其结构中包含了所有四种基本形式。首先绘制最大的形状。在这种情况下，最大的形状是球体。

Figure C. This orange squeezer, as well as the hurricane lamp that follows, includes all four basic forms in its structure. Begin by drawing the largest form first. In this case, the largest shape is a sphere.

图 D.以与橙色挤压器相同的方式开始绘制防风灯，先画最大的形状。这里的主要形状是圆锥体。

Figure D. Begin drawing this hurricane lamp in the same manner as the orange squeezer, with the largest shape first. Here the major shape is a cone.

项目 8

地平线

PROJECT 8

The Horizon Plane

现在您可以绘制任何对象，无论它可能包含多少种基本形式，让我们再看看这个称为透视的东西。无论您的主题是什么，您都必须考虑其相对于地平线平面。地平线平面就是从您直视前方时的地平线延伸到您低下眼睛时的脚部的表面。

Now that you can draw any object, regardless of how many basic forms it may contain, let’s take another look at this thing called perspective. Whatever your subject may be, you must consider its position in relation to the horizon plane. The horizon plane is simply the surface that extends from the horizon, as you look straight ahead, to your feet, as you lower your eyes.

关联对象

Relating Objects

虽然其垂直线保持垂直，但物体的顶部和底部会受到其与眼睛水平或地平线的相对位置的影响。当物体靠近地平线时，其顶部和底部都会变窄。

While its verticals remain vertical, the top and bottom of an object are affected by their relative positions to the eye level or horizon. Both the top and bottom of an object get narrower as they near the horizon.

在图 A中，我在地平线上绘制了网格，以图形方式向您展示对象的水平线如何汇聚到各自的消失点。我先随意建立了网格；然后我在距视线水平不同距离处绘制了这些形状，以便您可以看到这些形状如何受到不同位置的影响。

In Figure A, I drew the grid on the horizon plane to show you graphically how the horizontal lines of an object converge to their respective vanishing points. I arbitrarily established the grid first; then I drew the forms at various distances from the eye level so that you could see how these forms are affected by their different placements.

轮廓

Contours

注意图 A中 1 和 2 处的椭圆。圆形表面必须与其所在的水平面相符；检查图 A的 3、4 和 5 。唯一一个无论将其放置在何处都不会改变其轮廓的物体是球体。例如，拿一个球，把它放在你想要的任何地方。请注意，它的轮廓保持不变。

Note the ellipse in Figure A at 1 and 2. A circular surface must conform to the horizon plane on which it rests; check 3, 4, and 5 of Figure A. The only object that never changes its contour, no matter where you place it, is the sphere. Take a ball, for example, and place it anywhere you wish. Notice that its contours remain the same.

为了进一步证明这一原理，并排画一个圆和一个正方形；它们不必大于四英寸。将画有它们的纸放在脚边。现在将其慢慢举向您的眼睛，并保持纸张平整。当你举起纸张时，请注意圆形如何变成椭圆形，正方形如何变成长方形。它们距离您的眼睛越近，这些物体变得越浅。眼睛的高度是眼睛的水平线或地平线。

To demonstrate this principle further, draw a circle and a square side by side; they don’t have to be any larger than four inches. Place the paper on which you’ve drawn them at your feet. Now lift it slowly toward your eyes, holding the paper flat. As you raise the paper, notice how the circle becomes an ellipse and the square becomes a rectangle. The closer they get to your eyes, the more shallow these objects become. The height of your eyes is the eye level, or horizon.

创建作品

Creating a Composition

首先，您必须考虑放置物体的高度。即使对于学生来说，这听起来也有点太初级了。但您会惊讶地发现有多少构图因地平线平面上太高或太低的放置而被削弱。

First, you must consider the height at which you’ll place your objects. This may sound a bit too rudimentary, even for a student. But you’ll be amazed to learn how many compositions are weakened by a placement that’s either too high or too low on the horizon plane.

问自己一些与开始项目中提出的问题类似的问题会很有帮助。如果我从上面看我的元素会看起来更好吗？降低我的视线高度会增强构图效果吗？如果地平线将元素分开会更好吗？当您看不到对象的顶部或底部时，就会发生这种情况，如图B 视图1 所示。您对对象相对于地平线的放置的选择最终将取决于构图中对象的形状和数量。

It’s helpful to ask yourself questions similar to those asked in the beginning projects. Would my elements look better if I saw them from above? Would the composition be enhanced by lowering my eye level? Would it be better yet if the horizon were to split the elements? This occurs when you see neither the top nor bottom of an object, as in Figure B, view 1. Your choice regarding the placement of your objects in relation to the horizon will ultimately depend on the shape and the number of objects in your composition.

选择观点

Selecting a Viewpoint

除了放置一组元素之外，无论您的主题是什么，选择正确的视点对于创作良好的构图至关重要。作为一个练习，可以帮助你想象你的观点对你的构图的影响，在桌子上放置四到五件东西。它们可以是手边的任何物体；你不会画它们。站在桌子旁边观察它们不同的形状。弯腰，将手放在膝盖上，观察一个物体与另一个物体重叠时的差异。应该高一点文章被移到较短的文章后面吗？现在坐在椅子上，观察这组物体的更多变化。是否应该做出一些改变来创造更好的团体轮廓？单膝跪下，研究小组。站着的时候好点吗？最后，坐在地板上。整个组合是否仍然更好，或者整个构图在视觉上是否崩溃？

Along with the placement of a group of elements, the selection of the proper viewpoint is essential to creating a good composition, regardless of your subject. As an exercise to help you visualize the effect of your viewpoint on your composition, place four or five things on a table. They can be any objects on hand; you’re not going to draw them. Stand next to the table and observe their different shapes. Bend over, placing your hands on your knees, and observe the difference as one object appears to overlap the other. Should the taller article be moved behind the shorter one? Now sit on a chair and observe still more changes in the group of objects. Should anything be shifted to create a better group silhouette? Fall on one knee and study the group. Was it better when you were standing? Finally, sit on the floor. Is the group still better, or does the whole composition visually fall apart?

静物透视

Perspective in a Still Life

您决定观察和渲染物体的角度对于构图和绘制静物至关重要。在图 E中，我试图说明如何构图静物画，尽管我没有尝试完成一幅静物画。我们稍后会讨论这个问题。

The point of view from which you decide to observe and render your objects is essential to composing and drawing a still life. In Figure E, I’ve attempted to illustrate how to go about composing a still life, although I’ve made no attempt at achieving a finished drawing of one. We’ll come to that later on.

在图 B所示的几个位置中，我选择视图 2 作为我的桌面。我画的第一个元素是一个打开的棕色纸袋的立方体形状。虽然桌面与桌面成一个角度，而包与桌面成不同角度，但它们各自的消失点位于同一水平线上。

Of the several positions seen in Figure B, I choose view 2 for my table top. The first element that I draw is the cubic shape of an opened, brown paper bag. Although the table top is at one angle and the bag is at a different angle to it, their respective vanishing points are on the same horizon.

你可以将一个物体旋转到任何你想要的角度，只要你的视角保持不变，它的消失点就会保持在同一视线水平上。因此，当你坐下来开始绘画时，不要站起来完成它，反之亦然。

You can turn an object to any angle you wish, and its vanishing points will remain on the same eye level, as long as your viewpoint remains unchanged. So when you begin a drawing sitting down, don’t stand up to finish it, and vice versa.

处理实际对象

Working with Actual Objects

只需复制该项目中的所有图形，您就可能学到一些东西。但是，您将剥夺自己宝贵的工作经验来自实际物体。即使您无法复制我在图 E中使用的所有对象，也可以使用您手头上的任何对象。

By merely copying all of the figures in this project, you can probably learn something. However, you’ll be depriving yourself of the invaluable experience of working from actual objects. Even if you can’t duplicate all the objects I’ve used in Figure E, use whatever you have on hand.

确保您的其中一件物品与我使用的纸袋相对应。它的不太僵硬的轮廓可以衬托出其他物体的严格直线。

Be sure that one of your items corresponds to the paper bag I’ve used. Its less rigid contours serve as a foil to the severe straight lines of the other objects.

简要总结

A Brief Summary

本书中的每个项目都是建立在前一个项目中获得的知识的基础上的。没有一个项目是孤立的或自我维持的，因为绘画是一门累积的艺术。也就是说，必须先掌握一项技能，才能成功掌握下一项技能。例如，如果你不能画一条好的直线，就不可能教你画一个立方体。

Every project in this book is built upon knowledge acquired in the preceding project. No single project is isolated or self-sustaining, because drawing is a cumulative art. That is, one skill must be mastered before you can be successful with the next one. For example, it would be impossible to teach you to draw a cube if you couldn’t draw a good, straight line.

到目前为止，您所做的所有绘图都是对齐的（即没有色调），因为有必要集中精力建立对象的适当比例。如果引入明暗和色调的问题，那就是本末倒置了。但现在您已经掌握了一些绘画的基本技能，您可以继续学习渲染光影。

So far, all the drawings you’ve done have been in line (that is, without tone), because it was necessary to concentrate on establishing the proper proportions of objects. To have introduced the problem of light and shade and tonal values would have simply been putting the cart before the horse. But now that you’ve mastered some fundamental skills of drawing, you can move on to rendering light and shade.

图 A。请注意，当物体接近地平线时，其顶部和底部平面会变浅；相反，当物体远离地平线时，其顶部和底部平面会变得更深。将 1 和 2 处的椭圆与圆锥体 3 和圆柱体 4 的椭圆进行比较。在你周围的世界中寻找这个原理，即使你没有画画。

Figure A. Notice that as an object nears the horizon its top and bottom planes get shallower; conversely, as an object drops away from the horizon its top and bottom planes get deeper. Compare the ellipses at 1 and 2 with that of cone 3 and cylinder 4. Look for this principle in the world about you, even when you’re not drawing.

图 B。我的桌面可以使用无数的形状和视点。然而，它的形状最终取决于它相对于地平线的位置。我为图 E中的构图选择了视图 2 。

Figure B. There are an infinite number of shapes and viewpoints that I could use for my table top. However, its shape will ultimately depend on its position relative to the horizon plane. I chose view 2 for the composition in Figure E.

图 C.始终考虑视线水平，即地平线。它控制事物的外观，无论对象位于其上方（视图 1）、被其分割（视图 2）、位于其上方（视图 3）还是位于其下方（视图 4）。

Figure C. Always consider the eye level, the horizon. It controls the appearance of things, whether an object is on it (view 1), split by it (view 2), above it (view 3), or below it (view 4).

图 D.请记住，物体下面有坚实的几何形状。您必须传达这种结构，它可以在您的绘图中提供深度。

Figure D. Keep in mind that objects have solid geometric forms underlying them. You must convey this construction, which provides depth in your drawing.

图E。这幅画是静物构图的练习。首先，我确定主要元素（打开的纸袋）的正确比例，同时牢记其与水平面的关系。然后，我添加三个额外的立方元素。当你的构图中有多种立方体形式时，你必须引入另一种基本形式以避免单调。在这里，我添加了三个圆柱形物体来形成这样的对比。当我觉得我的物体在形状和位置上有足够的变化时，我会观察整组物体的轮廓（由三角形的虚线表示）。我觉得这组剪影的顶部足够有趣，但底部太均匀和静态。为了纠正这个问题，我放置了另一种基本形状 - 球体 - 以便轮廓的底部与其顶部的三角形相呼应。

Figure E. This drawing is an exercise in composing a still life. First, I establish the correct proportions of the main element—the open paper bag—keeping in mind its relation to the horizon plane. Then, I add three additional cubic elements. When there are a number of cubic forms in your composition, you must introduce another basic form to avoid monotony. Here I add three cylindrical objects for just such a contrast. When I feel that my objects are varied enough in shape and placement, I observe the silhouette of the entire group of objects (indicated by the triangular, broken line). I feel that the top of the silhouette of this group is interesting enough, but the bottom is too even and static. To correct this I position still another basic form—the sphere—so that the bottom of the silhouette will echo the triangle at its top.

项目 9

灯光和遮荫

PROJECT 9

Light and Shade

对于这个项目，您可以放下“办公室”铅笔并购买一支 Eagle“绘图”铅笔，#314。更好的是，买一打。它们将为您提供该项目所需的丰富黑色和深灰色。如果您所在的城镇没有这种特殊的铅笔，则可以使用任何带有柔软黑色铅芯的绘图铅笔，这会给您带来深沉的色调。

For this project you can put aside your “office” pencil and purchase an Eagle “draughting” pencil, #314. Better yet, buy a dozen. They’ll give you the rich blacks and deep grays you’ll need for this project. If this particular pencil is unavailable in your town, then use any drawing pencil with a soft, black lead that will give you deep tones.

说到艺术材料，检查一下您需要的不同材料不是一个好主意吗？从现在开始，您将经常更改它们。如果您所在的城镇没有出售艺术家材料的商店，我建议您从您附近最大城市的艺术用品商店索取邮购目录。这样您就可以在需要时获得正确的用品。

Speaking of art materials, wouldn’t it be a good idea to check the projects ahead for the different materials you’ll need? From now on, you’ll be changing them quite often. If there are no stores in your town that carry artists’ materials, I’d suggest that you send for a mail order catalog from the art supply store in the largest city near you. That way you’ll have the correct supplies on hand when you need them.

观察光与影

Observing Light and Shadow

没有光你就什么也看不见，这是不言而喻的。然而，只有艺术家才能观察并仔细考虑光（以及因此产生的阴影）的属性和特征以及光对他周围几乎所有事物的影响。

It’s axiomatic to say that without light you would see nothing. However, only the artist observes and carefully considers the properties and characteristics of light (and, consequently, shadows) and light’s effect upon virtually everything around him.

以前，您仅训练您的眼睛来查看并绘制排成一行的物体的正确比例。现在您将学习观察和绘制色调（即光和影）的物体。您将研究并渲染对象上的阴影以及由对象引起的阴影的角度、密度和形状。首先我们来研究一下室内光影的特性——人造光。稍后，当我们走到户外时，我们将处理自然光的行为。两种类型的光（人造光和自然光）之间的主要区别在于您可以控制室内光，而无法控制室外或自然光。太明显了，甚至不提？事实并非如此，正如我们将看到的。

Previously you only trained your eye to see and draw the correct proportions of an object that was in line. Now you’ll learn to observe and draw objects in tone, that is, light and shadow. You’ll study and render the angle, density, and shape of shadows on and caused by an object. First, let’s study the properties of light and shadow indoors—artificial light. Later, when we go outdoors, we’ll deal with the behavior of natural light. The main difference between both types of light—artificial and natural—is that you can control indoor light, while you can’t control outdoor or natural light. Too obvious to even mention? Not really, as we’ll see.

光与尺寸

Light and Dimension

目前，我们只处理一种光源以避免混淆。物体一侧的光与另一侧的阴影清晰而明确的分离，赋予物体三维外观，具有体积、高度和宽度。

For the present, let’s deal only with one light source to avoid confusion. It’s the clear and definite separation of light on one side of an object and shadow on the other that gives an object its three-dimensional appearance, of having volume as well as height and width.

落在物体上的光分成不同的明暗区域的方式取决于物体的表面。如果明暗之间的界限很清晰，则该物体具有平面，因此具有背离光线的边缘。如果从浅到深逐渐变化，则表面是弯曲的（图 A）。

The manner in which light, falling on an object, separates into distinct areas of light and dark depends upon the surface of the object. If the demarcation between light and dark is sharp, then the object has planes and, therefore, edges that turn away from the light. If there’s a gradual change from light to dark, then the surface is curved (Figure A).

色调值

Tonal Values

我制作图 B是为了让您了解阴影如何影响主题和构图。请注意，所有亮区都是白色的，所有暗区或阴影都具有相同的强度或值。明度只是铅笔、木炭等绘图介质产生的色调的明度或暗度（从白色到所有灰色阴影再到黑色）。图 B中物体上的所有阴影都是相同的原因值，或黑暗程度，是指所有物体都被认为是白色的并且具有相同的材质。没有引入局部颜色或纹理；我们将在下一个项目中探讨这些问题。对于图 B中的演示，我将白皮书本身留给灯光，并以相同的暗度渲染所有阴影。

I’ve done Figure B to give you an idea of how shading affects subject matter and composition. Notice that all the light areas are white and all the dark areas, or shadows, have the same intensity or value. Value is simply the lightness or darkness—from white through all shades of gray to black—of a tone produced by a drawing medium such as a pencil, charcoal, etc. The reason that all the shadows on the objects in Figure B are the same value, or degree of darkness, is that all the objects have been considered to be white and of the same material. No local color or texture has been introduced; we’ll explore those problems in the next project. For the present in Figure B I’ve left the white paper itself for the lights, and rendered all the shadows in the same degree of darkness.

使用全音阶

Using the Full Tonal Scale

然而，当你开始用色调绘制时，我希望你使用完整的色调范围——从黑色开始将所有灰色变为白色（图C）。我见过很多学生，他们的画变得又弱又苍白，因为他们太胆怯，不敢按下铅笔，获得深黑色和深灰色，而这些深黑色和深灰色会给他们的画带来活力。始终让您的绘画具有直接的线条和大胆的色调，以体现您的自信。

However, when you begin to draw in tone, I’d like you to use the full tonal scale—from black through all the grays to white (Figure C). I’ve seen many students who made their drawings weak and pale, because they were too timid to press down on their pencils and obtain the deep blacks and dark grays that would give their drawings vitality. Always give your drawings the directness of line and the boldness of tone that reflects your confidence.

投掷阴影

Cast Shadows

除了物体上的阴影之外，还有另一种类型的阴影，称为投射阴影。该阴影是由物体本身在其所在表面上产生的。投射的阴影不是一种平坦、均匀的色调；它们的源头颜色更深。它们最暗的部分紧邻投射它们的物体（图D）。这投射阴影的边缘可以是锐利的，也可以是柔和的；你必须仔细观察这些品质。

Along with the shadow on an object, there’s another type of shadow, known as the cast shadow. This shadow is created by the object itself upon the surface on which it stands. Cast shadows aren’t a flat, even tone; they’re darker at their source. Their darkest portion is immediately adjacent to the objects casting them (Figure D). The edges of cast shadows can be sharp or soft; you must carefully observe these qualities.

阴影边缘

Shadow Edges

这里应该提一下图 B和D中的阴影边缘。请仔细注意，在有角度或平面的物体上，当一个平面与另一个平面相遇并远离光线时，阴影边缘会变得锐利。然而，如果表面是弯曲的，则阴影边缘会变得柔和，因为色调划分是渐进的。

A word should be mentioned here about the shadow edges in Figures B and D. Note carefully that on an angular or planed object, as one plane meets another and turns away from the light, shadow edges are sharp. However, if the surface is curved, the shadow edge is soft, because the tonal demarcation is gradual.

将任何物体放在桌子上。用灯光（灯、手电筒等）照射它。观察当光线与物体的距离不同时，投射阴影的边缘会发生什么情况。您会注意到，当您将光源拉开时，投射阴影的边缘会变得更加清晰；当您将光源靠近物体时，这些边缘会变得更柔和。软边和脆边都有效。您必须决定您更喜欢哪个以及哪个看起来更适合您的主题。

Place any object on a table. Shine a light (lamp, flashlight, etc.) upon it. Observe what happens to the edges of a cast shadow when the light is at different distances from your object. You’ll notice that as you pull the light source away, the edges of the cast shadow will become sharper; as you place your light source closer to the object, these edges become softer. Both soft and crisp edges are valid. You must decide which you prefer and which seem more appropriate for your subject.

光的角度

Angle of Light

您选择的光线角度会影响您的主题（图E）。将您想要的任何物体放在桌子或凳子上，然后从不同角度照射它。当您在物体周围行走时，将光线保持在相同的高度和相同的距离，研究阴影的形状和投射的阴影。当然，您将选择并绘制最有趣的阴影图案。

The angle of light you choose affects your subject matter (Figure E). Place any object you wish on a table or a stool and shine a light on it from various angles. Study the shapes of the shadows and cast shadows as you walk around the object, holding the light at the same height and at the same distance. Naturally, you’ll select and draw the most interesting shadow patterns.

在图E中，被照亮的对象是咖啡壶。当光线直接位于物体前方时（如视图 1 所示），请注意物体上的阴影分散到其边缘，从而使形状变平。这将是您进行线条绘制时使用的照明角度，因为没有令人不安的阴影需要应对​​。

In Figure E, the subject illuminated is a coffee pot. When the light is directly in front of it (as in view 1) notice that the shadows on the object are scattered to its edges, thereby flattening the form. This would be the lighting angle to use when you’re doing a line drawing, because there are no disturbing shadows to contend with.

然而，如果您想传达物体的坚固性或体积，来自左上方或右上方的光线（视图 2 和 3）将为您提供这种三维效果。从后面照亮物体的结果（如视图 4 所示）将得到平坦的色调轮廓。如果当您想要绘制线条时，正面照明是最佳角度，那么当您想要绘制简单、平坦的色调形状时，背面照明则是最佳角度。

However, if you want to convey the solidity or volume of your object, a light from upper left or upper right (views 2 and 3) would give you this three-dimensional effect. The result of lighting an object from behind (as shown in view 4) would be a flat tonal silhouette. If lighting from the front would be the best angle when you want to do a line drawing, lighting from behind would be the best when you want to do a simple, flat shape in tone.

光照水平

Level of Light

现在我希望您在围绕物体移动时改变光源的高度或水平。光线角度越低，投射的阴影越长（图F ，视图1）。通常应避免这种低角度的照明，因为投射的阴影变得太长并且比对象本身更重要（图 F，视图 2）。但是，如果您更喜欢这个角度，可以用边框裁剪长投射阴影或与另一个对象相交（图 F，视图 3）。

Now I would like you to change the height or level of your light source as you move around an object. The lower the angle of light, the longer the cast shadow (Figure F, view 1). This low angle of lighting should usually be avoided, because the cast shadow becomes too long and more important than the object itself (Figure F, view 2). However, if you prefer this angle, the long cast shadow can be cropped with a border or intersected with another object (Figure F, view 3).

图 A。作为你的第一个练习，将这四种基本形式排成一行，就像我在这里所做的那样。然后添加阴影。光平面和阴影平面之间唯一明显的分离出现在立方体上。其他三个物体具有从亮到暗的柔和渐变过渡，表示它们的曲面。

Figure A. As your first exercise draw these four basic forms in line, as I’ve done here. Then add the shading. The only sharp separation between the light and shadow planes is seen on the cube. The other three objects have a soft, graduated transition from light to dark, denoting their curved surfaces.

图 B.布置静物时，使用自然光或人造光尝试几种不同的光线角度。在这里，我的光线来自左上角，因为它为我的物体提供了最有趣的光影图案。

Figure B. When arranging a still life, try several different light angles, using natural or artificial light. Here I have my light coming from the upper left, because it gives my objects the most interesting light and shadow pattern.

图 C.只需对其施加不同程度的压力，同一支铅笔（Eagle 绘图铅笔 #314）即可创建所有四个值。你按得越用力，音调就越暗。

Figure C. Simply by applying various degrees of pressure to it, the same pencil (the Eagle draughting pencil #314) creates all four values. The harder you press, the darker the tone.

图 D.请记住，投射阴影通常比对象本身的阴影更暗。投射阴影的最暗部分距离物体最近。

Figure D. Remember that cast shadows are usually darker than the shadows on the object itself. The darkest part of the cast shadow is closest to the object.

图 E.放置光源以获得正在渲染的对象上所需的效果。在视图 1 中，阴影区域分散到侧面，形成平面二维效果。在视图 2 和视图 3 中，光线来自左上方和右上方，形成明显的阴影图案，强调了对象的体积或三维度。在视图 4 中，背光提供了平坦的色调轮廓。

Figure E. Position your light source to obtain the desired effect on the object you’re rendering. In view 1, the shadow areas are dispersed to the side, creating a flat, two-dimensional effect. In views 2 and 3, the light is coming from the upper left and right, causing a distinct shadow pattern that emphasizes the volume or third dimension of the object. In view 4, backlight provides a flat silhouette in tone.

图 F.将任何形状有趣的物体放在人造光下。将灯光放置在箭头所示的角度。注意当您降低灯光时，阴影如何拉长（视图 1），直到阴影增长到比花盆更重要（更大）的程度（视图 2）。这可以通过在投射阴影前面放置另一个元素并与其相交来纠正（视图 3）。

Figure F. Take any object with an interesting shape and place it under artificial light. Position the light at the angles indicated by the arrows. Notice how the shadow lengthens as you lower the light (view 1), until the shadow grows to the point where it’s more important (larger) than the pot (view 2). This can be corrected by placing another element in front of the cast shadow, intersecting it (view 3).

项目 10

将当地颜色转化为黑白

PROJECT 10

Translating Local Color to Black and White

当地色彩仅仅指自然或人类赋予物体的颜色：红苹果、米色窗帘、绿树、白船或黑猫。当使用色调介质（例如铅笔和木炭）绘画时，您必须能够将这种局部颜色转换为黑色、灰色或白色的某种阴影或色调。

Local color simply means the color that nature—or man—has given to an object: a red apple, a beige curtain, a green tree, a white boat, or a black cat. When drawing with tonal media, such as pencils and charcoal, you must be able to transpose this local color into some shade or tone of black, gray, or white.

例如，如果你用木炭画一个红苹果（参见本章末尾的两个苹果演示），与青苹果等浅灰色相比，它会显示为深灰色。每个中间色调上都会有相应较亮和较暗的光和影。红色立方体上的阴影会比黄色立方体上的阴影更深，等等（图A）。

For example, if you were to draw a red apple with charcoal (see the Two Apples demonstration at the end of the chapter), it would appear as a dark gray compared to the much lighter gray of, say, a green apple. There would be lights and shadows correspondingly lighter and darker on the middle tone of each. The shadows on a red cube would be deeper than the shadows on a yellow cube, etc. (Figure A).

使用中间色调

Using a Middle Tone

将局部颜色转换为色调时，最好的程序是首先应用整体中间色调 - 浅灰色、中灰色或深灰色。在该区域建立中间色调后，您可以在更深的阴影中工作。最后，您可以使用揉捏的橡皮擦去除中间色调中的灯光。

When transposing local color to a tone, the best procedure would be to first apply an overall middle tone—a light, middle, or dark gray. After you establish this middle tone over the area, you can work in the deeper shadows. Finally, you can remove lights from the middle tone with a kneaded rubber eraser.

价值观和语气

Values and Tones

将本地颜色转换为黑白时，您可以使用整个价值范围。也就是说，您拥有从一端的白色到另一端的灰色到黑色的所有色调（图 B）。如果您使用该光谱所有范围的色调（白色、一些灰色和黑色），您的绘图将具有完全的对比度。

When translating local color to black and white, you have the entire value scale at your disposal. That is, you have all the tones ranging from white at one end through the grays to black at the other (Figure B). If you use tones from all the ranges of this spectrum—white, some grays, and black—your drawing will be in full contrast.

如果您的绘图仅包含色调范围一端的色调（例如，从白色到中灰色的色调），那么您的绘图就被认为是以高调完成的。如果您的音调值键较高位于白色一端；如果您的音调集中在黑端，则该值较低。仅用两种或三种相邻色调渲染的整个绘图称为近色调绘图。

If your drawing contains only those tones at one end of the tonal scale—for example, tones ranging from white through a medium gray—then your drawing is said to be done in a high key. The value key is high if your tones are on the white end; it’s low if your tones are grouped at the black end. An entire drawing rendered in just two or three adjacent tones is called a drawing in close tones.

音调安排

Tonal Arrangement

安排图片中的色调以创建平衡且令人愉悦的构图非常重要。良好的构图不仅仅取决于根据对象的大小和形状对对象进行良好的分组。您还必须以令人愉悦的方式分配光明和黑暗。它们的分布将直接影响观众的反应：让他兴奋或让他安静下来。你必须根据观众的反应来安排你的语气。

It’s important to arrange the tones in your picture to create a well balanced and pleasing composition. Good composition depends on more than a good grouping of objects according to their size and shape. You must also distribute light and dark in a pleasing manner. Their distribution will have a direct effect on the reaction of the viewer: stirring him to a frenzy or lulling him into quietude. You must arrange your tones with the reaction of the viewer in mind.

渲染纹理

Rendering Texture

绘画时必须考虑物体的纹理及其当地色彩。纹理可以给你的作品带来活力和真实感（图C）。需要注意的是：不要使用太多纹理，以免成为“噱头”。假设质地就像食物中的香料。适量的它会使食物变得美味；太多会破坏味道。

When drawing you must consider the texture of an object as well as its local color. Texture can give vitality and reality to your work (Figure C). A word of caution: don’t use so much texture that it becomes a “gimmick.” Let’s say that texture is like the spice in food. The correct amount of it will make food delectable; too much of it will spoil the flavor.

避免让绘图中的所有元素都具有相同的纹理——要么全部粗糙，要么全部光滑。为了避免单调，您必须安排某些具有光滑表面的通道来对抗粗糙的区域。这种并置产生的对比将使平滑区域看起来更加平滑，同时强调相邻区域的粗糙度。

Avoid having all the elements of your drawing in the same texture—all rough or all smooth. To avoid monotony you must arrange certain passages with slick surfaces to play against rough areas. The contrast created by such a juxtaposition will make the smooth areas seem even smoother, while emphasizing the roughness of the neighboring ones.

触觉和视觉纹理

Tactile and Visual Textures

触觉纹理（你可以物理感觉到的纹理）必须转换为视觉纹理。视觉纹理被引入到绘图中，以增强其元素的真实效果：瓷器的光滑表面、金属的光泽、石膏的粗糙度或布料的柔软度（图D）。通过将触觉转化为视觉感觉，绘画的观看者可以参与到因明智地放置各种纹理而产生的感官愉悦中。我们将在以后的项目中探索纹理与各种媒体的使用。

Tactile textures (those you can physically feel) must be transposed into visual textures. Visual textures are introduced into a drawing to strengthen the realistic effect of its elements: the slick surface of porcelain, the sheen of metal, the roughness of plaster, or softness of cloth (Figure D). By making tactile sensations into visual ones, the beholder of your drawing can participate in the sensual pleasure created by your judicious placement of various textures. We’ll explore the use of textures with various media in later projects.

图 A.（顶行）左侧的立方体实际上是黄色的。当用黑白绘制它时，它的黄色会转化为浅灰色。中间的立方体色调更深，表明其局部颜色可能是红色或其他更深的值。右侧的立方体具有最深的色调。诸如棕色或紫色之类的局部颜色可以用这样的值来表示。在方块集中（在此下方），我代表了整个值标度或频谱的色调。

Figure A. (Top Row) The cube on the left is actually yellow. When drawing it in black and white, its yellow would translate to a light gray. The middle cube is deeper in tone, indicating that its local color may have been red or some other deeper value. The cube on the right has the deepest tone. A local color such as brown or purple could be represented by such a value. In the set of squares (below this) I’ve represented the tones of the entire value scale or spectrum.

图 B.这里我以线性方式绘制了色调频谱。通过保持在光谱的上半部分或“比例”，您可以渲染出“高调”的绘图。如果只使用下半部分的色调，你的画就会显得“低调”。

Figure B. Here I’ve drawn the tonal spectrum in a linear fashion. By staying in the upper half of the spectrum, or “scale,” you could render a “high-keyed” drawing. If you use only the tones in the lower half, your drawing would be in a “low key.”

图 C.练习制作此处所示的纹理。请记住，就像某些香料一样，一点点的质感就能发挥很大的作用。

Figure C. Practice doing the textures shown here. Remember that just like certain spices, a little texture goes a long way.

纸张：首先，我使用“绘图”#314 铅笔以中灰色调表示此纸袋的“局部颜色”。然后，我对较暗的配置进行建模，并用橡皮擦挑选出灯光。

Paper: First I indicate the “local color” of this paper bag with a medium gray tone applied with a “draughting” #314 pencil. Then, I modeled the darker configurations and picked out the lights with a kneaded eraser.

布：在这里，我只是简单地用铅笔的一侧在“画布板”上擦拭，这是一种用于油画绘画的表面。我对铅笔施加中等压力。

Cloth: Here I simply rub the side of my pencil over a “canvas board,” a surface used for painting in oil. I apply medium pressure to the pencil.

Brick：我在这里遵循与渲染布料相同的程序。对于砖块，我用力擦拭以获得接近砖块红色局部颜色的暗色调。

Brick: I follow the same procedure here as I used in rendering the cloth. For the brick, I rub harder to achieve the dark tone which approximates the brick’s red local color.

木材：这里的木材和后面的金属都没有使用摩擦。在均匀的浅灰色中间色调上，我只是用铅笔芯的一侧画出木纹。

Wood: For both the wood here and the metal that follows, no rubbing is employed. Over an even, light gray middle tone I just draw in the grain of the wood with the side of the pencil’s lead.

金属：在整个区域应用浅灰色调后，我用纸树桩平滑该色调。然后我画了一些深色的形状，并用树桩将它们弄平。

Metal: After applying a light gray tone over the entire area, I smooth this tone with a paper stump. Then I draw in some dark shapes and smooth them out with a stump also.

百叶帘

Venetian Blind

桌布格子

Tablecloth Checks

格子结构

Latticework

砖墙

Brick Wall

壁纸图案

Wallpaper Pattern

图 D.视觉纹理通过用某种图案分解大面积的色调，有助于使绘画变得更有趣。

Figure D. Visual textures help to make a drawing more interesting by breaking up large areas of tone with a certain pattern.

两个苹果，第 1 步：在此演示中，红苹果位于左侧；红苹果位于左侧。绿色的在右边。我以扁平的方式用相应的灰色“中间”色调传达水果的当地颜色。请注意，右侧的苹果（绿色的苹果）的中间色调是浅得多的灰色。

Two Apples, Step 1: In this demonstration the red apple is on the left; the green one is on the right. In a flat manner I convey the local color of the fruit with a corresponding gray “middle” tone. Notice that the apple on the right—the green one—has a much lighter gray for its middle tone.

两个苹果，第 2 步：在这里，我添加茎形状以及平坦的中间色调上的阴影区域。请注意，左侧红苹果上的阴影值相应地比右侧青苹果上的阴影值更暗。

Two Apples, Step 2: Here I add the stem shape as well as the shadow areas over the flat, middle tone. Notice that the value of the shadows on the red apple at the left are correspondingly darker than those on the green apple at the right.

两个苹果，第 3 步：正确建立中间色调和阴影后，我用橡皮擦挑出高光部分。通过用手指压缩它，揉捏的橡皮擦（由可塑橡胶制成）可以为您提供所需的任何形状 - 从平坦和钝的到尖锐的和锋利的。最好按压并提起要去除的区域，而不是像使用硬橡皮擦那样擦拭它。

Two Apples, Step 3: Once the middle tone and shadows are correctly established, I pick out the highlights with a kneaded eraser. By compressing it with your fingers, a kneaded eraser (composed of malleable rubber) will give you whatever type of shape you need—from flat and blunt to pointed and sharp. It’s better to press and lift on the area you want removed than to rub over it, as you would with a hard rubber eraser.

项目 11

画静物

PROJECT 11

Drawing a Still Life

我有一种感觉，你正急于画一幅“真实”的图画。好吧，是时候释放你所有被压抑的创造力，并通过画静物来应用你所有的新知识了。对于此项目，您需要一支“办公”铅笔、一支 Eagle 绘图铅笔 #314（或同等产品）和一块橡皮擦。您可以使用任何薄纸。我使用了我的广告艺术垫，#307。它有一个非常轻微的“牙齿”或纹理表面。

I have a feeling that you’re getting anxious to draw a “real” picture. Well, the time has come to release all your pent up creative energy and apply all your new knowledge by drawing a still life. For this project you’ll need an “office” pencil, an Eagle draughting pencil #314 (or its equivalent), and a kneaded eraser. You can use any thin paper. I’ve used my Ad Art pad, #307. It has a very slight “tooth” or textured surface.

该项目中的分步演示清楚地说明了绘制静物是多么简单。这只是按照正确的顺序并运用常识来处理事情的问题。我建议你以比我的逐步绘图更大的比例进行工作。这样，您将更容易构建和阐明文本段落。

The step-by-step demonstration in this project clearly illustrates how simple a still life is to draw. It’s only a matter of taking things in their proper sequence and using common sense. I suggest that you work in a scale larger than that of my step-by-step drawings. In that way, it will be easier for you to construct and articulate the textural passages.

临摹与取材

Copying versus Drawing from Life

您可以按照所示的四个步骤复制我的静物画，而不是设置自己的静物画。如果做得明智的话，复制可能是有利的。许多老一辈大师以及当代艺术家都复制了更老艺术家的作品，以分析他们对各种问题的解决方案。

Rather than setting up your own, you can copy my still life following the four steps indicated. Copying can be advantageous, if it’s judiciously done. Many old masters, and contemporary artists as well, copied the work of still older artists in order to analyze their solutions to various problems.

另一方面，从真实事物中汲取灵感的挑战是无可替代的：必须抑制的刺眼亮点或在一块布上排列褶皱。所有这些变量都在您的控制范围内。你是唯一的仲裁者和法官。你的知识和判断力会随着经验的增长而发展，将决定你对绘画主题的选择。

On the other hand, there’s no substitute for the challenge of drawing from the real thing: the strident highlight that must be subdued or the arranging of the folds in a piece of cloth. All these variables are within your control. You’re the sole arbiter and judge. Your knowledge and judgement, which will develop with experience, will dictate your choice of subjects for drawing.

组成与构造

Composition and Construction

你的静物画可以像我的一样，由咖啡壶、奶精、杯子和碟子、餐巾以及放置它们的东西组成。您选择的背景应该增强您所安排的元素。你可以让光线从左上角射出，就像我所做的那样。但是，如果它更适合您特定物体的形状，您可以使用右上角的照明角度。

Your still life can, like mine, consist of a coffee pot, a creamer, a cup and saucer, a napkin, and something on which to place them. The background you choose should enhance the elements that you’ve arranged. You can have your light coming from the upper left, as I’ve done. However, if it’s more fitting to the shape of your particular objects, you can use an upper right lighting angle.

无论您为静物画选择什么对象，都首先绘制它们的基本几何结构。请记住，它们的比例取决于它们与地平线的关系。也就是说，用透视法绘制形状，这样它们就有深度和体积，从而具有现实感。

Regardless of the objects you select for your still life, begin by drawing their underlying geometric structure. Remember their proportions will depend on their relation to the horizon line. That is, draw your shapes with perspective, so that they’ll have depth and volume and, therefore, reality.

发出正确的音调

Laying Down Correct Tones

一旦确定了对象的正确形状和比例，您就可以开始渲染它们的色调值。从与对象的局部颜色相对应的适当中间色调开始。然后添加阴影。

Once you’ve established the correct shape and proportions of your objects, you can begin to render their tonal values. Begin with an appropriate middle tone that corresponds to the object’s local color. Then add the shadows.

您可以在一张废纸上测试您选择的色调值。然后将此色调样本放在您要绘制的对象旁边。太暗了？然后再做一次样本，这次施加较小的压力。如果结果比您要转置的局部颜色浅，请施加更大的压力。

You can test your choice of tonal values on a piece of scrap paper. Then place this swatch of tone right next to the object you’re about to draw. Too dark? Then do another swatch, this time applying less pressure. If the result is lighter than the local color you’re transposing, apply more pressure.

为了使我的静物演示的色调方案多样化和平衡，我使用中灰色作为餐巾和锅，在工作台面上使用浅灰色，在奶精上使用深灰色，并在杯子上使用白色。

For variety and balance in the tonal scheme of my still life demonstration, I’ve used a medium gray for the napkin and pot, a light gray on the countertop, a dark gray on the creamer, and white for the cup.

茶歇，第一步：我首先描绘对象的底层几何结构。我相信您会认出带有圆锥形盖子的圆柱形结构。有一个改进的圆筒形成奶精；工作台面下方有一个立方体；而圆柱体的一部分形成了碟子。杯子是球形的。

Coffee Break, Step 1: I begin by delineating the underlying geometric structure of the objects. I’m sure you’ll recognize the cylindrical construction of the pot with its conical lid. There’s a modified cylinder forming the creamer; a cube underlies the countertop; while a section of a cylinder forms the saucer. The cup is spherical.

茶歇，第二步：在这里您可以运用新获得的“当地色彩”知识。该图中的局部颜色变成了灰色阴影，介于最暗或“最低”值（锅的黑色手柄）和最亮或“最高”值（白色杯子和碟子）之间（以及可以看到的亮点）在步骤 3) 中。

Coffee Break, Step 2: Here you can employ your newly acquired knowledge of “local color.” The local colors in this drawing become shades of gray which fall between the darkest or “lowest” value—the black handle of the pot, and the lightest or “highest” value—the white cup and saucer (and the highlights which can be seen in Step 3).

茶歇，第 3 步：我在物体本身上开发光影区域。我还添加了它们的投射阴影。请注意这些投射的阴影如何跟随它们落在其上的物体的轮廓。明亮的白色杯子有一些反射光到锅和奶精上。

Coffee Break, Step 3: I develop the light and shadow areas on the objects themselves. I also add their cast shadows. Notice how these cast shadows follow the contour of the objects upon which they fall. There’s some reflected light from the bright, white cup onto the pot and creamer.

茶歇，第四步：最后一个阶段是艺术家的“甜点”。除了与纹理有关的问题外，所有问题都已解决。关于渲染纹理（一旦您决定包含多少纹理），我可以给您的最佳建议是在渲染时尝试用眼睛“感觉”每个表面的质量。

Coffee Break, Step 4: This last stage is the “dessert” for the artist. All the problems, except those concerning texture, have been solved. The best advice I can give you about rendering textures (once you’ve decided how much to include) is to try to “feel” with your eye the quality of each surface as you render it.

项目12

绘画与木炭

PROJECT 12

Drawing with Charcoal

在本项目和后续项目中，我将向您介绍所有不同且令人兴奋的绘图媒体。我们将探讨每种媒介所采用的不同形式以及每种媒介可以产生的各种效果。当您尝试每种不同的媒体时，您将了解其独特的功能；然后您将能够将这些功能应用到需要这些特定效果的绘图中。我们将从最通用、最有说服力的木棍开始——木炭。

In this and the following projects, I’m going to introduce you to all the different and exciting drawing media. We’ll explore the different forms each medium takes and the various effects each can produce. As you experiment with each different medium, you’ll learn its unique capabilities; then you’ll be able to apply these capabilities to a drawing which requires those particular effects. We’ll begin with that most versatile and eloquent stick—known as charcoal.

藤蔓和压缩木炭

Vine and Compressed Charcoal

各种类型的木炭适合特定的绘图要求（图 A）。一根藤（软）木炭或一支 #2B 木炭铅笔，只需施加很小的压力，即可用于绘制第一幅草图。

Various types of charcoal lend themselves to particular drawing requirements (Figure A). A stick of vine (soft) charcoal or a #2B charcoal pencil, applied with very little pressure, can be used for the first sketches of your drawing.

当您对最初的轮廓感到满意时，您可以使用产生更大胆色调的木炭类型开始决定性的渲染：木炭棒#2、#3和#4，或大而粗的#7木炭铅笔。您可以将#2、#3 或#4 木炭棒放在侧面并快速、粗略地擦拭，从而瞬间覆盖较大的色调区域。产生的音调取决于各种木炭棒的等级（软、中或硬）以及您施加的压力大小。

When you’re satisfied with your initial delineation, you can start your decisive rendering with types of charcoal that produce bolder tones: charcoal sticks #2, #3, and #4, or a big fat #7 charcoal pencil. You can cover large tonal areas in a wink by laying the #2, #3, or #4 charcoal sticks on their sides and rubbing them in quick, broad strokes. The tones produced will depend on the grade—soft, medium, or hard—of the various charcoal sticks and the amount of pressure you apply.

木炭粉

Powdered Charcoal

木炭粉可用于用灰色调覆盖异常大的区域（例如 4' × 6'）。它通常装在纸容器中。要应用它，请将画纸平放。将粉末尽可能均匀地撒在整个表面上；然后用抹布揉搓或混合粉末麂皮。粉末越多，色调自然就越深。

Powdered charcoal is useful in covering an unusually large area—say 4′ × 6′—with a gray tone. It usually comes in a paper container. To apply it, you lay your drawing paper down flat. Sprinkle the powder as evenly as possible over the entire surface; then rub or blend the powder with a chamois skin. The more powder, the darker the tone, naturally.

橡皮擦和搅拌机

Erasers and Blenders

木炭可以产生无穷无尽的笔画。通过使用混合器（即，将木炭笔划平滑或混合为音调的工具），可以将这些笔画进一步修改为各种音调。可以使用简单的纸巾或棉花来混合木炭。一块麂皮效果很好，尤其是与木炭粉一起使用。揉捏过的橡皮擦也能混合并帮助去除木炭色调中的浅色通道。

Charcoal can produce an endless variety of strokes. These strokes can be further modified into a wide variety of tones by using blenders, that is, tools that smooth or blend charcoal strokes into tones. A simple paper tissue or piece of cotton can be used to blend charcoal. A piece of chamois skin works well, especially with powdered charcoal. A kneaded eraser also blends and helps to lift out light passages from the charcoal tone.

还有用于混合的纸桩。它们只不过是紧紧卷成的尖头工具。小而窄的称为玉米饼。

There are also paper stumps for blending. These are nothing more than tightly rolled paper formed into a pointed tool. The small, narrow ones are called tortillons.

一些最好的，当然也是最便宜的搅拌机是您自己的指尖。当然，如果你的手指容易潮湿或油腻，就不要触摸你的画。使用我提到的其他搅拌机之一。

Some of the best, and certainly the cheapest, blenders are your own fingertips. Of course, if your fingers have a tendency to be wet or oily, don’t touch your drawing. Use one of the other blenders that I’ve mentioned.

文件

Papers

有无数种论文可供选择。除了专门为木炭制作的常规绘图纸外，您还可以使用仿制绘图表面，例如牛皮纸袋（请参阅我的演示）、纸盘和餐巾纸。

There’s an endless variety of papers to choose from. Besides regular drawing paper, made specifically for charcoal, you can use ersatz drawing surfaces such as brown paper bags (see my demonstration), paper plates, and napkins.

调色纸

Toned Papers

尽管我们通常认为是在白纸上绘画，但有色或调色纸为各种效果提供了更多可能性。调色纸为您的绘画增添了色彩和色调的幻觉。应选择纸张颜色以增强您的主题。

Although we usually think in terms of drawing on white paper, tinted or toned papers open up even more possibilities for various effects. Toned paper adds the illusion of both color and tone to your drawing. The color of the paper should be selected to enhance your subject matter.

浅灰色和奶油色纸张的使用方式与白纸大致相同。但当你的纸的颜色变暗时，你会需要创建一些亮区来恢复您的色调范围。这些浅色或“高”色调值可以通过使用除木炭之外的其他介质来实现，例如白色 Conté 铅笔或白色蜡笔（参见浅碗，步骤 2）。

Pale gray- and cream-toned papers can be used in much the same way as white paper. But as the color of your paper darkens, you’ll need to create some light areas to restore your tonal range. These light or “high” tonal values can be achieved by using another medium besides charcoal, such as white Conté pencil or white pastel (see Shallow Bowl, Step 2).

当您使用调色纸时，其色调或色调会自动产生整体中间色调。通过添加一些较暗的色调和一些亮的值，您可以创建许多色调值的错觉。与在白纸上放置中间色调并从中添加或减去色调相比，建立色调关系的过程要快得多。当您制作大图片时，在调色纸上工作特别有用。

When you use a toned paper, its tone or tint automatically produces an overall middle tone. By adding a few darker tones and some light values, you can create the illusion of many tonal values. This is a much quicker procedure for establishing tonal relationships than laying down a middle tone on white paper and adding or subtracting tones from it. Working on toned paper is especially useful when you’re doing a large picture.

固定剂

Fixative

由于大多数提到的木炭棒和铅笔很容易弄脏，因此您应该在完成的图纸上喷上透明固定剂。市场上有几个品牌——它们都很高效。如今，大多数产品都装在气雾罐中。

Since most of the charcoal sticks and pencils mentioned smudge easily, you should spray your finished drawings with transparent fixative. There are several brands on the market—all of them efficient. Today most of them come in aerosol cans.

将固定剂罐放在距绘图约一英尺的地方。尝试喷在你的画上，而不是直接喷在它上面，并保持罐子不断移动。确保在室外或通风良好的房间内进行喷洒。固定剂产生的烟雾非常可怕，有毒且易燃。

Hold your can of fixative about a foot from your drawing. Try to spray across your drawing rather than straight down upon it, and keep the can constantly moving. Make sure you do your spraying outdoors or in a well-ventilated room. The fumes from fixative are ghastly, being both toxic and flammable.

木炭的多功能性

Charcoal’s Versatility

探索木炭提供的技术的所有可能性。木炭棒的优点并不一定局限于它的作用。通过将其整个长度平放在纸上，木炭棒也可以产生充满活力、宽阔的通道。方棒有八个角，可以削出细线，其宽度也可以用来画粗笔。当然，它的长度为您提供了大范围的工作范围。

Explore all the possibilities of technique that charcoal offers. The virtues of the charcoal stick aren’t necessarily confined to its point. By using its entire length flat on the paper, a charcoal stick can also produce vigorous, broad passages. A square stick has eight corners that can be shaved for fine lines, and its width can be used for broad strokes as well. Of course, its length gives you wide sweeps for working in a large scale.

了解当您对同一根木炭棒施加不同的压力时，它会产生什么效果。通过使用不同种类的纸张（从光滑到粗糙），木炭的无数效果可以进一步倍增。尝试并学习如何在绘图的某些段落中使用不同的纸张。

Find out what effects the same charcoal stick will give you when you apply different amounts of pressure to it. The countless results of charcoal can be multiplied still further by using different kinds of paper—from smooth to rough. Experiment and learn how you can put different papers to use in certain passages of your drawing.

易于操作

Ease of Manipulation

戈雅（Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes）在两个世纪前曾感叹道：“给我一块木炭，我就画你的肖像！” 我认为他说的是木炭的灵活性和易于操作性。您可以轻松地铺展大而均匀的色调，在需要时加深和强调它，挑选亮点，并用线条加强色调，就像使用油画（肖像画的传统媒介）一样。实际上，木炭肖像中唯一缺少的元素就是颜色。而且，天知道，有一些肖像让你希望艺术家完全忽略色彩。

Goya (Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes) exclaimed two centuries ago: “Give me a piece of charcoal and I’ll paint your portrait!” I think he was speaking of charcoal’s flexibility and ease of manipulation. You can easily spread a large even tone, deepen and accent it where required, pick out highlights, and reinforce the tone with line, just as you would with oils—the traditional medium for portrait painting. Actually the only element missing from a charcoal portrait would be color. And, heaven knows, there are some portraits that make you wish the artist had ignored color completely.

木炭曾经是大多数艺术学校最喜欢的媒介，现在仍然是我的媒介之一，因为它适合快速的图形陈述。可以进行无数次修正，而不会损坏纸张表面或使完成的绘图看起来很费力。在我看来，对于学生来说，它仍然是最好的媒介，无论他的倾向是使用细而精致的线条，还是大胆而充满活力的色调。

Charcoal used to be a favorite medium in most art schools, and it still is one of mine, because it lends itself to quick pictorial statement. Innumerable corrections can be made without torturing the surface of the paper or imparting a labored look to the finished drawing. To my mind, it’s still the best medium for the student, whether his tendency is to work in thin and delicate line or bold and vigorous masses of tone.

图 A.细藤木炭棒 (1) 是开始绘画的好工具，因为它可以产生精致的线条。它也可以在其侧面使用以产生广泛的音调（a，在下图中）。压缩木炭棒（2、3、4）可产生细线和粗笔划（b、c）。木炭铅笔，#2B 和 #4B 级（5 和 6）根据所用压力的大小产生细线或粗线 (d)。将麂皮 (7) 涂抹在一点木炭粉上，会混合出大而柔和的色调 (e)。用揉捏的橡皮擦 (8) 挑出混合色调中的亮区。左侧的浅色区域之一用白色 Conté 铅笔 (9) 削尖。粗大的#7 木炭铅笔用于绘制细线和宽色调 (f)。玉米饼 (11) 和大纸桩 (12) 可用作附加搅拌器 (g, h)。

Figure A. The thin vine charcoal stick (1) is a good tool with which to begin a drawing, because it produces a delicate line. It can also be used on its side to produce broad sweeps of tone (a, in the image that follows). Compressed charcoal sticks (2, 3, 4) produce both thin lines and broad strokes (b, c). Charcoal pencils, grades #2B and #4B (5 and 6) produce light or heavy lines (d) depending upon the amount of pressure used. The chamois skin (7) rubbed over a spot of powdered charcoal will blend a big, soft tone (e). The light areas in the blended tone are picked out with a kneaded eraser (8). One of these light areas on the left is sharpened with a white Conté pencil (9). A fat, #7 charcoal pencil is used to produce both thin lines and broad tone (f). The tortillons (11) and large paper stump (12) can be used as additional blenders (g, h).

图 B.我在这幅图画中使用了中号和软号炭笔。我用树桩混合了我的音调；我用橡皮擦挑出了一些灯。我还使用了白色 Conté 铅笔来获得最浅的值。当然，如果您愿意，您可以使用更硬和更软的铅笔。如果你喜欢大规模工作，那么你应该转向大铅笔和大棍子。

Figure B. I’ve used both a medium and a soft charcoal pencil for this drawing. I’ve blended my tones, with a stump; some of the lights I’ve picked out with a kneaded eraser. I’ve also used a white Conté pencil for the lightest values. You can, of course, use harder and softer pencils if you wish. If you prefer to work in a large scale, then you should swing over to the big pencils and the large sticks.

图C。我偶然发现了这把可爱的扫帚，并立即被它美丽的性格迷住了。我画它是因为我想让你看到，一个普通的物体有时具有将其提升到艺术水平的品质。我用过藤木炭棒。我已经指出了它的要点；地板和墙壁上的色调是用棍子的侧面完成的，将色调与树桩稍微混合。

Figure C. I came upon this delightful broom quite by accident and was immediately captivated by its beautiful character. I’ve drawn it because I want you to see that a common object sometimes has qualities that lift it to the level of art. I’ve used a vine charcoal stick. With its point I’ve indicated the straw; the tone on the floor and walls is done with the side of the stick, blending the tone a bit with a stump.

纸袋，第 1 步：无论物体的细节有多复杂，始终首先设置几何底层结构的正确平面，就像我在这里所做的那样。在这种情况下，结构由两种简单的立方体形式组成。一旦确定了大的形状，我就可以轻松地将它们细分为更小的细节，例如袋子的褶皱和皱纹。

Paper Bags, Step 1: No matter how complex the detail of an object may be, always begin by setting down the correct planes of the geometric underlying structure, as I’ve done here. In this case, the structure consists of two, simple cubic forms. Once I’ve established the big shapes, I can easily subdivide them into smaller details such as the folds and wrinkles of the bags.

纸袋，第 2 步：使用 #2B 炭笔，我选择棕色包装纸作为绘图表面，因为它可以为我提供袋子的局部颜色和亮区的值，而无需渲染它们。使用 #2B 木炭铅笔，我将折叠和皱纹的较暗配置与不受影响的区域（即棕色纸的颜色）分开。我从一开始就很小心地建立我已经放置的阴影图案的柔软而清晰的边缘。当袋子和它们的投射阴影完成后，我用白色 Conté 蜡笔做台面，因为这是要图片中最亮的光线。我施加更大的压力，以获得更大的对比度，并在与较大包相邻的区域中进行更紧密的笔画。如果您的作品规模较大，请使用木炭棒代替铅笔，并用白色蜡笔代替白色康泰粉笔。

Paper Bags, Step 2: Using a #2B charcoal pencil, I choose brown wrapping paper for my drawing surface, because it gives me both the local color of the bags and the value of the light areas without having to render them. Using a #2B charcoal pencil, I separate the darker configurations of folds and wrinkles from the areas that are to be left untouched (that is, the color of the brown paper). I’m careful from the beginning to establish the soft and crisp edges of the shadow pattern that I’ve already laid in. When the bags and their cast shadows are finished, I do the countertop in white Conté crayon, because this is to be the picture’s lightest light. I apply more pressure, for greater contrast, and closer strokes in the areas adjoining the larger bag. If you work in a large scale, use charcoal sticks instead of pencils and substitute white pastel for the white Conté.

浅碗，第一步：我总是从线条开始构建元素。在这个阶段，错误很容易被纠正。这里，一些关键比例是：适当的椭圆形（顶部和底部），在这个视线水平上，水罐相对于平底锅的高度，以及洋葱与土豆相比的大小。一开始我只有这四篇文章。然而，直到我的妻子（也是一位艺术家）建议我将洗碗巾包裹在手柄上时，它们才脱落。这给了我图片所缺乏的必要的节奏和运动，以及令人愉快的纹理对比。用手盖住布，注意如果没有它，其余的元素会变得多么暗淡。

Shallow Bowl, Step 1: I always begin the construction of the elements with line. It’s at this stage that mistakes can be easily corrected. Here, some of the key proportions are: the proper ellipses—top and bottom—at this eye level the height of the pitcher in relation to the pan, and the size of the onion compared to the potato. At first, I had only these four articles. However, they didn’t come off right until my wife (who is also an artist) suggested that I wrap the dish towel around the handle. This gives me the necessary rhythm and movement the picture lacked, as well as a delightful contrast in textures. Cover the cloth with your hand and notice how dull the remaining elements become without it.

浅碗，步骤 2：在这里，如前面的演示一样，我使用#2B 和#4B 木炭铅笔。对于#2B，我首先指出排列、比例和浅灰色。使用 #4B，我创建了更深的灰色和黑色。这次我使用了奶油色的木炭画纸。我用白色 Conté 铅笔画出最亮的区域。您可以在水罐、平底锅和洋葱的亮点上看到这些区域。

Shallow Bowl, Step 2: Here, as in the preceding demonstration, I use the #2B and the #4B charcoal pencils. With the #2B, I first indicate the arrangement, the proportions, and the lighter grays. With the #4B, I create the darker grays and blacks. This time I use a cream-colored, charcoal drawing paper. I establish the lightest areas with the white Conté pencil. You can see these areas on the highlights of the pitcher, the pan, and the onion.

项目13

静物画中木炭

PROJECT 13

Still Life in Charcoal

无论你的静物画由什么组成，你必须首先正确地绘制其元素的结构。在这个项目中，您将用木炭渲染静物。您也可以在其他媒体以及即将推出的项目中尝试它。在继续之前，我想再次强调，任何绘图都始于仔细描绘其对象的底层结构。

No matter what your still life may consist of, you must first draw the construction of its elements correctly. In this project you’ll render a still life in charcoal. You’ll be able to try it in other media as well in the projects to come. Before proceeding, I’d like to emphasize once more that any drawing begins with the careful delineation of the underlying structure of its objects.

我强调这一点是因为我知道许多学生都是从完成一幅图画（专注于细节）开始的，而不是为其打下坚实的基础。正如建筑工人在拥有支撑框架之前不会担心屋顶一样，艺术家必须先确定大的形状、适当的比例和关系，然后才能开始仔细地向其绘图添加细节（图A、B）。真正的艺术家不会在结构不良的图画上添加阴影、局部颜色和纹理。

I stress this point because I know many students begin by finishing a drawing (concentrating on detail) rather than laying down a solid foundation for it. Just as a builder doesn’t worry about a roof until he has a framework to support it, an artist must establish the big shapes, proper proportions, and relationships before he can begin carefully adding detail to his drawing (Figures A, B). A true artist doesn’t hang shading, local color, and textures on an ill-constructed drawing.

四大绘图原则

Four Drawing Principles

在绘制静物或任何主题时，需要考虑四个至关重要的点：分组的整体轮廓、色调方案（明暗平衡）、纹理和边缘（图 C）。在项目 10和11中，我讨论了建立均衡的色调方案、渲染纹理以及提供整体令人愉悦的轮廓的重要性。在图 D中，我将再次强调这些原则的价值，同时以图形方式说明每一项原则。

In drawing a still life, or any subject, there are four vitally important points to consider: the overall silhouette of the grouping, the tonal scheme (the balance of lights and darks), the textures, and the edges (Figure C). In Projects 10 and 11, I discussed the importance of establishing a well-balanced tonal scheme, rendering textures, and providing an overall, pleasing silhouette. In Figure D, I’ll stress the value of these principles once more, while graphically illustrating each one.

但在我谈论实际用木炭渲染静物之前，我想讨论一下边缘及其在绘画中所扮演的角色。

But before I talk about actually rendering a still life in charcoal, I’d like to discuss edges and the role they play in a drawing.

硬边和软边

Hard and Soft Edges

物体的边缘描述了其整个表面的特征和纹理。边缘通常是硬的或软的，具体取决于其成分构成。例如，在图D中，瓶子的边缘是硬的，但面包的边缘以及折叠的餐巾是软的。

The edge of an object describes the character and texture of its entire surface. An edge is usually hard or soft, depending on its compositional makeup. For example, in Figure D, the edges of the bottle are hard but the edges of the bread, as well as the folded napkin, are soft.

当然，您可以稍微改变边缘以适应您自己的艺术目的。通过锐化对象的边缘，您可以使它们看起来离观看者越来越近。您可以通过赋予对象柔和、模糊的边缘来使它们退入背景。您必须渲染边缘以适应对象的特征和您自己的构图要求。

Of course, you can alter edges a bit to suit your own artistic purposes. By sharpening up the edges of objects you can make them seem nearer, closer to the viewer. You can make objects recede into the background by giving them soft, smudgy edges. You must render your edges to suit both the character of the object and your own compositional requirements.

从“粗糙”开始工作

Working from “Roughs”

有时，艺术家会带着清晰的要完成的图像走近他的画板。但这些幸运的瞬间很少发生——至少对我来说是这样。一般来说，艺术家必须通过许多“粗略”草图来发展和完善他的绘画，如图C所示。由于他的绘画概念很脆弱，他必须通过这些视觉“粗糙”来解决他的画面问题。通常，在他心目中看似完美的东西在写在纸上时需要修改。

There are times when an artist approaches his drawing board with a clearly conceived image of the picture to be done. But these lucky flashes seldom occur—to me, at least. As a rule, the artist must develop and refine his drawing through many “rough” sketches, like those shown in Figure C. Since his concept of his drawing is tenuous, he must solve the problems of his picture through these visual “roughs.” Often what appears perfect in his mind’s eye needs modification when set down on paper.

拿一个形状良好的瓶子、一个高脚酒杯、一条面包、一把面包刀和一张餐巾，就像我在静物画中所做的那样（图C）。将它们排列成尽可能多的变化。至少画一打这样的粗略草图，重点关注大形状和整体轮廓，而不是挑剔的细节。

Take a well-shaped bottle, a stemmed wine glass, a loaf of bread, a bread knife, and a napkin, as I’ve done for my still life (Figure C). Arrange them in as many variations as possible. Do at least a dozen of these rough sketches, concentrating on the big shapes and overall silhouette, rather than on finicky detail.

木炭非常适合这种探索，因为它很容易操作。您可以快速加深并加强一条好的线条，或者用橡皮擦擦掉一条不好的线条。广泛工作的最佳方式（以及避免琐碎的细节）的方法是使用钝的木炭铅笔或粗的木炭棒。

Charcoal is admirably suited to this kind of exploration, because it’s so easy to manipulate. You can quickly darken and strengthen a good line or lift out a bad one with a kneaded eraser. The best way to work broadly (and avoid niggling detail) is to use a blunt charcoal pencil or a thick charcoal stick.

创作静物

Composing a Still Life

我确信您已经注意到，我将最后一张草图（图 C 中的视图 7）作为我的静物画的基础。这并不一定意味着最后的草图通常是最好的。有时，第一个粗糙的效果远远优于接下来的粗糙。但你应该为自己探索任何学科的所有可能性。

You have noticed, I’m sure, that I took the last rough (view 7 in Figure C) as a basis for my still life. It doesn’t necessarily follow that the last sketch is usually the best. There are times when the first rough is far superior to the ones that follow. But you owe it to yourself to explore all the possibilities of any subject.

在这种特殊情况下，虽然我喜欢所选择的那个，但我知道它有某些必须纠正的缺陷。主要是，这些物体太“排列”了，而且餐巾纸上的对角线折叠不够牢固，不足以抵消排列。另外，暗色调的布局“重”在右下角。请注意，这些是在原稿以“黑白”形式呈现后您会注意到的事情。我认为这比我能说的任何事情都更能证明这些最初的视觉尝试是无价的。当你自己画画时，你也会发现没有他们的帮助就开始绘画是鲁莽的。我的成品图见图E，其中包含了“粗略”中提出的问题的解决方案。

In this particular case, although I liked the one chosen, I knew it had certain flaws that had to be corrected. Mainly, the objects were too “lined up”, and the diagonal folds on the napkin weren’t strong enough to counteract the alignment. In addition, the placement of the dark tones was “heavy” on the lower right corner. Mind you, these are things that you notice after the rough is set down in “black and white.” I think this, more than anything I can say, proves that these first visual attempts are invaluable. As you do them yourself, you too will find that it would be rash to begin any drawing without their aid. See Figure E for my finished drawing which incorporates the solutions of the problems presented in the “rough.”

实践与理论

Practice versus Theory

到目前为止，我已经强调了程序的“原因”，因为您必须知道遵循任何规定的操作顺序的原因。即使你的渲染很尴尬，首先了解绘图的基础知识也很重要。每个人都可以通过不断的练习来掌握处理木炭或任何介质的能力。

Up to this point I’ve emphasized the “why” of a procedure, because you must know the reason for following any prescribed sequence of action. It’s important to know the fundamentals of drawing first, even if your rendering is awkward. Facility in handling charcoal, or any medium, comes to everyone through constant practice.

最终，一种特定的绘画技巧不需要太多思考，如果你问一位艺术家“如何”完成某个段落，他可能不会记得。但如果你问他“为什么”，他会热切地、大声地告诉你。事实上，你可能会后悔你问了这个问题！当需要时，我将继续解释“为什么”，但我希望您现在专注于“如何”绘制。

Eventually a particular drawing technique takes so little thought that if you asked an artist “how” he did a certain passage, he probably wouldn’t remember. But if you asked him “why,” he’d eagerly and most vociferously tell you. In fact, you might be sorry you asked! I’ll continue to explain the “why’s” as the need arises, but I’d like you to concentrate now on “how” to draw.

图A。在理解了上一张图的复杂性之后，我相信您会发现这只是小孩子的游戏。选择你周围可能有的两个简单物体，看看它们的大小和形状是否互补。只要它们的大小不同，它们是什么并不重要。找到最满意的安排；像我在这里所做的那样，在深灰色炭纸上描画或画线。我用#2B 和#4B 炭笔渲染了阴影并投射了阴影。我使用了一个纸桩来平滑这些段落，并使用白色 Conté 的尖端侧面渲染高光部分。这种技术带出了纸张本身的线性图案，并引入了另一种纹理。

Figure A. After the complexities of the preceding drawing, I’m sure you’ll find this one child’s play. Select two simple objects that you may have around and see that they complement each other in size and shape. It doesn’t matter what they are as long as they aren’t the same size. Find the most pleasing arrangement; trace or do a line drawing on dark gray charcoal paper as I’ve done here. I’ve rendered the shadows and cast shadows with #2B and #4B charcoal pencils. I’ve used a paper stump to smooth these passages and rendered the highlights with the white Conté, using the side of its point. This technique brings out the linear pattern of the paper itself and introduces another texture as well.

图 B.您会发现绘图纸的一个有趣之处是，其中一些绘图纸具有两个不同的表面 - 一侧比另一侧更光滑。我在画茄子时使用了与画两只猫头鹰相同的（斯特拉斯莫尔）深灰色纸。然而，在这幅画中，我使用了纸张的反面，它具有更光滑的表面，但仍然有足够的“牙齿”来容纳木炭。

Figure B. One of the things you’ll find interesting about drawing papers is that some of them have two different surfaces—smoother on one side than on the other. I’ve used the same (Strathmore) dark gray paper on this drawing of the eggplant as I did on the drawing of the two owls. However, for this drawing I’ve used the paper’s reverse side which has a smoother surface, yet still has enough “tooth” to take the charcoal.

图 C.必须在初步草图中找出图片的构图。我将单独描述我的一系列“原石”，并解释为什么其中六个被丢弃。

Figure C. The composition of a picture must be sought out in preliminary sketches. I’ll describe my series of “roughs” individually and explain why six of them were discarded.

1 . 这里的所有元素都在争夺注意力。从瓶子顶部到面包的对角线太强烈了。

1. All of the elements here are vying for attention. The diagonal from the top of the bottle down to the bread is too insistent.

2 . 这是有可能的，但背景中的窗帘与餐巾相结合，抢走了人们的兴趣中心。

2. This has possibilities, but the drapery in the background, combined with the napkin, steals the show from the center of interest.

3 . 我喜欢这种形状的排列，但鸟瞰图似乎太做作了。

3. I like this as an arrangement of shapes but the bird’s eye view seems too contrived.

4 . 我对这个太近了，而且我不喜欢倒置玻璃的负面暗示。

4. I get too close on this one, and I don’t like the negative suggestion of the inverted glass.

5 . 隔离玻璃使其显得过分重要。一条面包和一个瓶子让左边的画面变得沉重。

5. Isolating the glass gives it undue importance. The loaf of bread and the bottle make the picture heavy on the left.

6 . 这是一个非常糟糕的安排。三个主要元素排列在一起，而刀只是用来强调单调。

6. This is a very bad arrangement. The three main elements are lined up, and the knife only serves to accentuate the monotony.

7 . 就是这个！我觉得通过一些小的改变，这个构图将为一幅非常漂亮的图画奠定基础。见图E。​

7. This is it! I feel that with a few minor changes this composition will provide the foundation for a very nice drawing. See Figure E.

图D。通过使用这些图表而不是口头描述，我可以更好地解释一幅好的静物画中各个元素的功能。(1) 在这里，我强调了瓶子、面包板和柜台的硬边（轮廓）。请注意这些边缘以及面包的软边缘和布的更软边缘的并置。(2) 这里我用平淡的色调勾勒出物体的轮廓。注意物体的轮廓是一个完整的形状。无色调的形状也构成了绘画的一个组成部分，被称为负形。(3) 我对这幅静物的元素应用了平淡的灰色调。这种色调指出了光滑纹理相对于粗糙纹理的位置。(4) 这里我展示了音调的分布。注意白色区域如何以反向运动扫过黑暗区域。灰色调支持这两个极端值，提供视觉平衡。

Figure D. By using these diagrams rather than a verbal description, I can better explain the function of the various elements in a good still life. (1) Here I’ve accentuated the hard edges (contours) of the bottle, the bread board, and the counter. Notice the juxtaposition of these edges and the soft edges of the bread and the still softer ones of the cloth. (2) Here I’ve silhouetted the objects in a flat tone. Note the silhouette of the objects as an integrated shape. The untoned shapes form an integral part of the drawing as well and are called negative shapes. (3) I’ve applied a flat gray tone to the elements of this still life. This tone points out the placement of smooth textures in relation to rough ones. (4) Here I’ve shown the distribution of tones. Notice how the white areas sweep across the darks in a countermovement. The gray tones support both these extreme values, providing visual balance.

图E。这张图是在晚上画的；光线是人造的，来自左上角。我对瓶子应用了最深的色调。最浅的色调由白色斯特拉斯莫尔木炭纸本身处理。高光的形状很好，可以用橡皮擦擦掉。当我需要在高光上有锋利的边缘时，我使用了白色的 Conté 铅笔。

Figure E. This drawing was done at night; the light is artificial, coming from the upper left. I applied the deepest tone to the bottle. The lightest tones are taken care of by the white Strathmore charcoal paper itself. Highlights are well shaped and lifted out with a kneaded eraser. Where I needed a sharp edge on a highlight, I used a white Conté pencil.

项目14

绘画户外活动

PROJECT 14

Drawing Outdoors

所有适用于静物画的绘画原则也适用于自然风景画。它们也适用于绘制图形，正如我们回到室内时您会看到的那样。事实上，我们从一开始就讨论的绘图原则适用于你绘制的所有东西。

All the principles of drawing that apply to still life hold true also for landscape drawing from nature. They apply to drawing the figure as well, as you’ll see when we come back indoors. As a matter of fact, the drawing principles we’ve been discussing from the very beginning apply to everything you draw.

自然光

Natural Light

室内和室外绘画的根本区别之一是光线的差异。户外光线在风景画中起着至关重要的作用。在寻找静物上人造光的最佳角度后，由您决定光线的方向、距离，甚至强度。现在您将在任何有自然光的情况下在室外工作。您无法更改其距离或强度。

One of the fundamental differences between drawing indoors and outdoors is the difference in light. Light outdoors plays a vital part in landscape drawing. After searching for the best angle of artificial light on a still life, it was you who made the decision about the light’s direction, its distance, and even its intensity. Now you’re going to work outside with whatever natural light is available. You cannot change its distance or intensity.

光一天中的不同时间

Light at Different Times of Day

然而，你不会处于完全无助的境地。您仍然可以选择您喜欢的光线角度。早晨，水平光会产生长投射阴影，比大多数其他设备可以更好地统一构图（图 A）。上午的对角线光线赋予景观元素坚实感，它所产生的投射阴影清晰地定义了地面。在正午头顶的阳光下，投射的阴影几乎消失了。下午有对角的光线（图B），直到再次到达夕阳的水平光线。

However, you won’t be in a completely helpless position. You can still select the angle of light you may prefer. In the morning there’s horizontal light which creates long cast shadows that can unify a composition better than most other devices (Figure A). The diagonal light of mid-morning imparts solidity to the elements of a landscape, and the cast shadows it creates clearly define the ground plane. With the overhead light of high noon, cast shadows almost disappear. There are diagonal angles of light in the afternoon (Figure B) until once more the horizontal light of the setting sun is reached.

观察光的影响

Observing the Effects of Light

当你发现一个你认为具有绘画要素的主题时，请在一天中的不同时间研究它。画出粗略的草图，只是为了看看哪个角度的光线能给你带来最有趣或最具描述性的阴影图案。

When you find a motif that you think has the makings of a picture, study it at different times of the day. Make rough sketches just to see which angle of light gives you the most interesting or descriptive shadow pattern.

观察自然元素的投射阴影——树木、岩石等（图C）。请记住，投射阴影的来源是最锐利和最暗的。例如，研究投射阴影离开树根时的清晰边缘，以及当投射阴影远离其源时，阴影边缘如何变得更柔和，其值如何变得更亮。请注意，树干上的阴影不是平坦、均匀的色调，因为光、从地面反射，又反弹回地面。记住给你的阴影赋予这种亮度；如果你用平坦、均匀的色调渲染它们，那么亮度就会消失，你的阴影会显得毫无生气和暗淡。

Observe the cast shadows of elements in nature—trees, rocks, etc. (Figure C). Remember a cast shadow is sharpest and darkest at its source. Study the crisp edges of a cast shadow as it leaves the base of a tree, for instance, and how the shadow’s edges become softer and its value becomes lighter as the cast shadow travels away from its source. Note that the shadow on the trunk of the tree isn’t a flat, even tone, because light, reflected from the ground, is bouncing back into it. Remember to give this luminosity to your shadows; if you render them in a flat, even tone this luminosity is lost and your shadows will look lifeless and dull.

反射光

Reflected Light

反射光发生在户外，就像静物画中一样。不同之处在于，您可以通过更改反射光反射表面的值来控制室内反射光的强度 - 从一张白纸，经过几种灰色，到黑色。

Reflected light occurs outdoors just as it did in your still lifes. The difference is that you can control the intensity of reflected lights indoors by changing the value of the surface off which they bounce—from a white piece of paper, through several grays, to black.

在户外，您必须遵守地面反射光线的色调。它的颜色在很大程度上取决于季节，从反光能力最强的雪白，到裸露的地面，或绿草如茵。

Outdoors you must abide by the tone of the ground reflecting the light. Its color depends to a great extent on the seasons, from the white of snow which has the greatest reflective power, to bare ground, or green grass.

搜索基本表格

Searching for Basic Forms

你首先画了盒子、罐头食品和瓶子，因为我知道这些东西是你触手可及的，可以在你房间的任何地方观察和分析。现在我们要出去研究树木、房屋、船只等的形状、形状和纹理（图D和E）。您一定不要忘记，这些也遵循相同的绘图定律。房子是立方体的，无论多么复杂；树是圆柱体的排列；一座山通常是半个球体——有时会进行很大的修改，但仍然以球体为基础。

You started by drawing boxes, canned goods, and bottles because these were things I knew you had within reach and could observe and analyze anywhere in your room. Now we’re going out to study the form, shape, and texture of trees, houses, boats, etc. (Figures D and E). You mustn’t forget that these, too, are subject to the same laws of drawing. A house is cubic, no matter how complex; a tree is an arrangement of cylinders; a hill is usually half a sphere—modified greatly sometimes, but still based on the sphere.

当您绘制自然和户外物体时，请注意眼睛的水平以及光影的质量。还要考虑纹理（图 F）以及负形状与正形状。将这些以及我们探索过的所有其他绘图原则付诸实践。

When you draw nature and outdoor objects be aware of the eye level and the quality of light and shadow. Consider also the textures (Figure F) and negative versus positive shapes. Put into practice these and all the other drawing principles we’ve explored.

使用取景器

Using a Viewfinder

面对大自然不断变化的形式的看似混乱，学生可能会发现很难为他的绘画找出合适的主题。取景器是一种有用的设备，您可以自己制作，它可以机械地减少这种混乱。

Confronted by the seeming confusion of nature’s ever-changing forms, the student may find it difficult to isolate a suitable subject for his drawing. A viewfinder is a useful device that you can make yourself which mechanically cuts down this confusion.

有两种类型。您可以通过在 8 英寸 × 10 英寸的纸板上切一个 3 英寸 × 5 英寸的开口来制作（图 G）。更灵活的类型可以由两条 L 形纸板条用回形针固定在一起形成方形开口（图 H）。回形针允许您调整查看区域的大小。

There are two types. One you can make by cutting a 3″ × 5″ opening in an 8″ × 10″ piece of cardboard (Figure G). A more flexible type can be fashioned from two L-shaped strips of cardboard held together by paper clips to form a square opening (Figure H). The paper clips allow you to adjust the size of your viewing area.

通过将取景器放在眼前，任何一种类型都可以阻挡干扰元素，让您能够专注于一个物体或一组简单的物体。它会为你“框架”可能的主题，从混乱中创造出一幅“图画”。

By holding the viewfinder before your eye, either type will block out distracting elements and allow you to focus on an object or simple group of objects. It will “frame” possible subject matter for you, creating a “picture” from amid the confusion.

绘画当场

Drawing on the Spot

够了。现在我们到户外去呼吸一下新鲜空气吧。我刚刚拿起我的广告艺术本，削尖了六支“办公室”铅笔，然后跳进了车里。我完全不知道我要画什么草图，但我保证向您展示我的草图（图 A到F），与它们结果完全一样。

Enough talk. Let’s go outdoors now and breathe some fresh air. I’ve just picked up my Ad Art pad and sharpened six “office” pencils and jumped in the car. I haven’t the remotest idea what I’m going to sketch, but I do promise to show you my sketches (Figures A through F) exactly as they turn out.

您居住的乡村拥有将您所学的绘画原理付诸实践所需的所有材料。如果我的户外草图看起来与你的不同，那只是因为它们反映了我所看到的和我周围的事物的特征和氛围。无论我找到什么主题，都可能与您的主题不同，但我会描述吸引我的品质。第一次游览时，仅携带 #307 广告艺术垫和六支普通铅笔；请记住，您在户外携带的物品越少越好。

The countryside where you live has all the material that you’ll ever need to put into practice the principles of drawing that you’ve already learned. If my outdoor sketches have a different look than yours, it’s only because they reflect the character and atmosphere of what I see and respond to around me. Whatever subjects I find probably won’t resemble yours, but I’ll describe the qualities that attracted me to them. On your first excursion, take only the #307 Ad Art pad and six ordinary pencils; remember the fewer materials you encumber yourself with outdoors, the better.

图A。在这幅海景图中，主要是用石墨铅笔尖的侧面完成的，光线来自左上角。这种类型的对角光是上午或下午的特征，可产生清晰的投射阴影。这种光影图案创造了渲染岩石所需的坚固形状。

Figure A. In this seascape, done mainly with the side of a graphite pencil point, the light is coming from the upper left. This type of diagonal light, characteristic of mid-morning or afternoon, creates clearly defined cast shadows. This light and shadow pattern creates a solidity of form that’s needed for rendering rocks.

图 B.光的角度来自右上角，其角度表明上午或下午。请注意，尽管道路部分处于阴影中，但路边的坡度仍在阳光照射下。还要注意其他绘图基础的存在，例如道路的平行线，当它们退到地平线时合并，以及存在的各种纹理。

Figure B. The angle of light is coming from the upper right on an angle that is indicative of late morning or afternoon. Notice that although the roadway is partly in shadow, the grading on the side of the road is still picking up the sun. Note also the presence of other drawing fundamentals such as the parallel lines of the roadway that merge as they recede to the horizon and the variety of textures that are present.

图 C.对于此草图，我使用铅笔的侧面（如此处完成的草图下面的详细信息所示）来获得清晰、宽阔的岩石平面。无论光线角度如何，岩石顶部的色调通常较浅，因为它们面向天空——光源。它们的侧面色调通常较暗，除非光线角度非常水平（例如清晨或傍晚）。然后一侧被照亮，而另一侧则处于黑暗中。

Figure C. For this sketch I use the side of the pencil (shown in the detail below the finished sketch here) to achieve the crisp, broad planes of the rocks. Rocks are generally lighter in tone on top, regardless of the angle of light, because they face up toward the sky—the source of light. Their sides are generally darker in tone except when the angle of light is extremely horizontal—as in early morning or late evening. Then one side is illuminated while the opposite side is in darkness.

图 D。主要是提示我绘制此草图的形状。从这个角度来看，这些元素具有最有趣的明暗变化。请注意，圆柱形树为原本相当单调的立方体形式的排列引入了多样性。

Figure D. It’s primarily the shapes present that prompt me to draw this sketch. From this viewpoint the elements have the most interesting variety of lights and darks. Notice that the cylindrical tree introduces variety to what would otherwise have been a rather monotonous arrangement of cubic forms.

图E.正如《柳林风声》中水鼠所说：“没有什么比弄弄船更奇妙的了。” 当我看到这些排列得如此美丽、在草地上闪闪发光的白色时，我只想把它们画下来。请特别注意一艘船的曲线与另一艘船的美妙对位。

Figure E. As the water rat said in Wind in the Willows: “There’s nothing so marvelous as messing about with boats.” When I came upon these, arranged so beautifully and gleaming white against the grass, I just had to draw them. Notice, especially, the wonderful counterpoint of the curves of one boat against another.

图 F。我画这个草图是因为存在纹理的对比。木纹以及粗茬草与光滑的金属桶的并置特别令人愉悦。

Figure F. I’ve done this sketch because of the contrast of textures present. The juxtaposition of the wood grain, as well as the stubbly grass, to the smooth metal bucket is especially pleasing.

图 G.如果您很难找到拍摄对象，可以在一块 8 英寸 × 10 英寸的纸板上切一个大约 3 英寸 × 5 英寸的开口或“窗口”来制作取景器。这是简化大自然丰富性的老把戏。尝试一下。

Figure G. If you have difficulty in finding a subject, make a viewfinder by cutting an opening, or “window,” about 3″ × 5″ in an 8″ × 10″ piece of cardboard. This is an old trick to simplify nature’s profusion. Try it.

图 H。回到工作室，您可能会发现草图中包含了太多内容。如果是这样，请如图所示剪下两块 L 形纸板，然后尝试将它们放在您认为单独可以形成更好构图的绘图部分上。

Figure H. Back in the studio, you may find that you’ve included too much in your sketch. If so, cut two L-shaped pieces of cardboard as shown and try placing them over sections of the drawing that you think would make better compositions by themselves.

图一：工作时，请记住不要只关注拍摄对象的正面形状，而要关注负面形状（此处以灰色调显示）。

Figure I. As you work, remember to look beyond the positive shapes of your subject to the negative shapes (shown here by gray tone).

图 J。我没有在该图的顶部添加纹理，这样您就可以看到树干的基本圆柱形形状。这些圆柱形形状的渲染先于树皮的执行。树的色调是由我用手指摩擦的炭笔的侧面产生的；树皮是用铅笔尖完成的。我丢弃了它周围的其他树，因为单棵树使绘图更有力。

Figure J. I’ve left the top of this drawing untextured so you can see the basic cylindrical shapes of the tree trunks. The rendering of these cylindrical forms precedes the execution of the tree’s bark. The tree’s tone is produced by the side of a charcoal pencil which I rub with my finger; the bark is done with the pencil’s point. I’ve discarded the other trees that surround it, because the single tree makes the drawing more forceful.

项目15

用木炭在户外绘画

PROJECT 15

Drawing Outdoors with Charcoal

就像我们在第一次素描旅行时带上便笺本和一些办公铅笔一样，现在让我们带上同样的便笺簿和一些中级木炭铅笔、一块揉好的橡皮、一块抹布和一罐固定剂。木炭非常适合在户外绘画。它柔韧且用途广泛，可产生从精致到大胆的各种色调和效果。

Just as we took a pad and some office pencils out on our first sketching trip, let’s now take the same pad and some medium grade charcoal pencils, a kneaded eraser, a rag, and a can of fixative. Charcoal is well suited to drawing outdoors. It’s pliable and versatile, producing a wide range of tones and effects—from delicate to bold.

优点和木炭的缺点

Advantages and Disadvantages of Charcoal

木炭易于操作且处理简单（不需要刷子、水或其他介质），在户外绘画时显然具有优势。唯一的缺点在于木炭的柔韧性。

Charcoal’s ease of manipulation and simplicity in handling (no brushes, water, or other mediums are needed) are clearly advantageous when drawing outdoors. The only drawback resides in charcoal’s pliability.

因为木炭画只要轻轻一碰就会改变，所以处理完成的画时必须小心。事实上，由于木炭素描很容易受到干扰，因此您应该在完成后立即喷洒固定剂。

Because a charcoal drawing can be changed at the slightest touch, you must be careful when handling your finished drawing. Indeed, because a charcoal sketch is so easily disturbed, you should spray it with fixative the moment it’s finished.

捕捉自然意境

Capturing the Moods of Nature

由于大自然的形态不断变化，户外工作的艺术家必须准备好快速记录她转瞬即逝的情绪。木炭提供了这种渲染所需的速度。例如，您可以快速记下光和云的形成的最短暂的方面。您可以快速地将木炭散布在大面积上以产生音调。用手指或麂皮摩擦音调可以减轻木炭的颜色，或者您也可以轻松地将其完全消除。

Because nature’s forms are endlessly changing, the artist working outdoors must be prepared to quickly note her fleeting moods. Charcoal provides the speed necessary for such rendering. For example, you can quickly jot down the most fleeting aspects of light and cloud formations. You can quickly spread charcoal over a large area to produce a tone. The charcoal can be lightened by rubbing the tone with your fingers or a chamois, or you can easily eliminate it altogether.

渲染特定对象

Rendering Specific Objects

在户外的大自然中，就像在室内的人造物体一样，必须首先寻找简单的、潜在的几何形式。木炭易于操作，可让您快速指示大形状；然后你可以继续判断这些较大形状与其他较小形状的比例和相互关系。一旦您从最广泛的角度捕捉到了树木或岩石，您就可以进一步研究更小的形状和复杂的细节（图 A）。

Outdoors in nature, just as indoors with man-made objects, the simple, underlying geometric forms must be sought out first. Charcoal’s ease of manipulation lets you quickly indicate the large shapes; then you can go on to judge the proportions and inter-relationships of these larger shapes to other, smaller ones. Once you’ve captured your tree or rock in the broadest terms, you can work down toward the smaller shapes and the intricate details (Figure A).

在渲染特定主题（例如岩石）的大型形状时，需要注意一个危险（图 B）。因为您全神贯注于建立正确的比例，所以您可能会忘记布局或构图。结果可能是如图 B的视图 1 所示的单调排列。然而，组合问题很容易解决（图B的视图2 ）。

There’s one danger to watch for when rendering the large shapes of a particular subject, such as a rock (Figure B). Because you’re so engrossed in establishing correct proportions, you may forget about placement or composition. The result might be a monotonous arrangement as in view 1 of Figure B. However, the compositional problem is easily solved (view 2 of Figure B).

粗糙的木炭草图

Rough Charcoal Sketches

我已经做了图 C和D的粗略木炭草图强调木炭特别适合捕捉自然的快速印象。我还想指出，大多数现场（户外）绘画都会产生这些木炭“草图”或草图，而不是研究。在后者中，您尝试研究主题的特征和细节。在炭笔原稿或素描中，你试图只捕捉瞬间转瞬即逝的印象。

I’ve done the rough charcoal sketches of Figures C and D to emphasize charcoal’s particular suitability for capturing the quick impression of nature. I also want to point out that most drawing on the spot (outdoors) produces these charcoal “roughs” or sketches rather than studies. In the latter, you try to study the character and detail of a subject. In the charcoal rough or sketch, you’re trying to capture only the fleeting impression of the moment.

木炭成品图

Finished Drawings in Charcoal

在你的草图中，你建立了景观中元素的基本比例和关系。草稿应该以简单、平坦的基本形式轮廓快速完成。只需要稍微注意渲染特定的色调或纹理。它们应该只是被暗示。

In your rough sketch you establish the basic proportions and relationships of the elements in your landscape. The rough should be executed quickly in a simple, flat outline of the basic forms. Only minor attention should be given to rendering the particular tones or textures. They should merely be hinted at.

当您对第一印象感到满意时，您就可以专注于阴影边缘、色调值的渐变和特定纹理。当您完成绘图或研究时，您可以擦除草图的第一条粗轮廓线。我更喜欢将木炭粗略或轮廓滑到广告艺术垫上的另一张纸下，然后开始最终渲染。（请参阅项目末尾的演示。）

When you’re happy with this first impression, you can then concentrate on the edges of shadows, gradation of tonal values, and specific textures. As you work on your finished drawing or study, you can erase your sketch’s first broad, contour lines. I prefer to slip my charcoal rough, or outline, under another sheet of paper on my Ad Art pad, and then begin the final rendering. (See the demonstrations at the end of the project.)

图A。这里的吸引力主要在于矩形形状和墙上美丽的开裂灰泥的相互作用。木炭非常适合留下这样的快速印象。您很快就可以用一块木炭的侧面来表示最广泛的大形状。使用木炭棒的尖端，您可以记录足够的细节来创建某些纹理或有趣的元素。

Figure A. The attraction here is primarily the interplay of rectangular shapes and the beautiful cracking plaster on the wall. Charcoal is ideal for putting down quick impressions like this. In no time at all with the side of a piece of charcoal, you can indicate big shapes in the broadest terms. With the point of a charcoal stick, you can record just enough detail to create certain textures or interesting elements.

图 B.当我画这个草图时，我完全专注于渲染我面前的场景。但当我回到工作室时，我注意到岩石轮廓的单调。由于绘图已经“固定”，我将它从我的广告艺术板中滑到另一张纸下，描出它，并将其岩石替换为您在视图 2 中看到的岩石。请注意，新岩石的倾斜 A 提供了所需的反推力树干的对角线 B。

Figure B. When I did this sketch I became completely absorbed in rendering the scene before me exactly as it was. But when I returned to the studio I noticed the monotony of the rock’s contour. Since the drawing was already “fixed,” I slipped it under another sheet from my Ad Art pad, traced it, and replaced its rock with the one you see in view 2. Notice that slant A of the new rock provides the needed counterthrust to diagonal B of the tree trunk.

图 C.我所做的所有更改原始场景的操作都是放大右侧的形状，以更好地平衡构图。

Figure C. All I’ve done to change the original scene is enlarge the shape at the right to balance the composition a bit better.

图 D。一切都在这张粗略的木炭草图中完美地分布：色调、纹理和线性推力。

Figure D. Everything is beautifully distributed in this rough charcoal sketch: the tones, the textures, and the linear thrusts.

图E。这是用炭笔绘制的另一幅粗略草图。如果我要完成这个场景的绘制，我会把树画得小一点，这样它们就不会与兴趣中心——房子竞争。我也会让它们变得更苗条。

Figure E. Here’s another rough sketch done in charcoal pencil. If I was going to do a finished drawing of this scene, I would do the trees a bit smaller, so that they wouldn’t compete with the center of interest—the house. I’d also make them a bit more slender.

图 F.一旦这些松树的整体形状正确建立，我将我的工作图滑到另一张垫子下并开始完成绘图。我现在可以开始用藤木炭渲染较小的细节。因为木炭很容易受到干扰，所以我在画完成后就用固定剂喷洒了它。

Figure F. Once the overall shapes of these pine trees are correctly established, I slip my working drawing under another sheet of my pad and begin the finished drawing. I can now begin rendering the smaller details with vine charcoal. Because charcoal is so easily disturbed, I spray the drawing with fixative the moment it’s finished.

船库，第一步：我已经答应向你展示我在素描之旅中所做的一切，无论结果是否好。这是一张不起作用的草图。我怀着极大的热情开始创作，因为形状和纹理都非常令人兴奋。我很快就封锁了你在这里看到的线路安排，然后事情就发生了！我发现事情太多了；背景和船只正在争夺注意力。我想我可以通过只关注船只来保存这个，或者只显示远处的地平线，码头在前面，如虚线所示。但有时一幅画就是无法脱落。

Boathouse, Step 1: I’ve promised to show you everything that I’ve done on my sketching trip whether it’s turned out well or not. Here’s one sketch that doesn’t work. I started with great enthusiasm because the shapes and textures were so exciting. I quickly blocked in the line arrangement you see here, and then it happened! I noticed there were too many things; the background and the boats were competing for attention. I suppose I could save this one by concentrating on the boats only, or just showing the distant horizon with the dock up front, as indicated by the broken line. But sometimes a drawing just doesn’t come off.

船库，第 2 步：我不愿意放弃这幅画，我将线条草图滑到另一张纸下并开始应用色调。我只能达到你在这里看到的程度，因为我的音调表现得很平淡。尽管如此，眼前场景的色彩和纹理还是那么美丽！一切都是珍珠般的、虹彩的，渴望被绘画！这就是关键词，画的，不是画的。你应该问自己的第一件事是：这个地方最初吸引我的是什么？如果它是彩色的，而你只配备了木炭，那就算了。做个记号，以便稍后带着颜料回到现场。

Boathouse, Step 2: Reluctant to give up on this drawing, I slip the line sketch under another sheet of paper and start applying tone. I only get as far as what you see here, because my tones come out flat. Still, the color and textures of the scene before me are so beautiful! Everything is pearly, iridescent, and crying out to be painted! That’s the key word, painted, not drawn. The first thing you should ask yourself is: what is it about the spot that attracts me in the first place? If it’s color, and you’re equipped with only charcoal, forget it. Make a notation to come back to the spot later with your paints.

项目16

绘制图形

PROJECT 16

Drawing the Figure

到目前为止，您已经学会了观察并绘制您所看到的所有事物的比例。绘制图形时建立比例也是一个重要的考虑因素。你必须不断地将身体的某一部分与另一部分进行对照，才能忠实地再现人体形态。

Up to this point you’ve been learning to observe and draw proportions of everything you see. Establishing proportions is also a vital consideration when drawing the figure. You must constantly check one part of the body against another in order to draw a faithful reproduction of the human form.

基本身体比例

Basic Body Proportions

我不知道是谁首先提出了一个概念，即一个人物的高度是基于八个头的长度。但我们将使用这个测量结果作为我们要绘制的真实图形的基础。然而，这种测量只是一个出发点。

I’ve no idea who first advanced the notion that a figure has a height based on the length of eight heads. But we’ll use this measurement as a basic foundation for the real figures we’re going to draw. However, this measurement is only a point of departure.

图A中的图表（左侧为男性，中间为圆柱形，右侧为女性）只是“理想”图形，可用作衡量您将要绘制的真实图形的标准。当你从生活中绘画时，你必须意识到你面前的人物与这些“理想”比例有什么不同，以及有多大的不同。

The diagrams in Figure A (male on the left, cylindrical form in the center, female on the right) are only “ideal” figures, to be used as yardsticks against which to measure the real figures you’ll be drawing from. As you draw from life, you must be aware of how the figure before you differs, and by what degree, from these “ideal” proportions.

圆柱形人体

Cylindrical Human Form

我已经完成了图 A中的中心形状，以向您展示人体也有一个基本的几何形状 - 圆柱体。通过绘制圆柱形人体，您不仅可以了解身体的轮廓，还可以了解其尺寸。身体和圆柱体一样，是一个三维物体。即使只画直线，也必须表现出身体的重量和体积。

I’ve done the central shape in Figure A to show you that the human figure also has an underlying geometric form—the cylinder. By drawing a human body in cylindrical form, you become aware not only of the body’s contours, but its dimensions as well. The body, like the cylinder, is a three-dimensional object. Even when drawing solely in line, you must convey the body’s weight and bulk.

为了充分体验这一事实，我希望你抓住你的手臂、你的腿，并用手抚摸你的胸腔。当你画画时，记得感受并传达你刚刚经历过的体积和重量。在图形中实现体积和重量的一个好方法是寻找并绘制圆柱形形状。

To fully experience this fact, I want you to grip your arm, your leg, and run your hand around your rib cage. When you draw, remember to both feel and convey this volume and weight that you’ve just experienced. A good way to achieve volume and weight in your figures is by searching out and drawing cylindrical shapes.

一些身体测量

Some Body Measurements

从胸腔开始学习构建基本的圆柱形图形；请记住，它包括颈部。胸腔基本上是一个圆柱体，其轮廓经过修改以接近人体形状。从直立位置观察时，胸腔大约有两个头高。

Learn to construct the basic cylindrical figure by beginning with the rib cage; remember that it includes the neck. The rib cage is fundamentally a cylinder with its contours modified to approximate the human shape. The rib cage is about two heads high, when viewed in an upright position.

骨盆部分大约一头高。手臂在胯下延伸半个头；小腿，包括脚，有两个头长。当然，所有这些比例都是相对的。它们仅适用于直视身体的情况。当身体的某些部分远离观看者或向前看时，还需要考虑其他因素。

The pelvis section is about one head high. The arms extend half a head below the crotch; the lower leg, including the feet, is two heads in length. Of course, all these proportions are relative. They apply only when the body is viewed straight on. When parts of the body recede from the viewer or come forward, there are additional considerations.

透视缩短

Foreshortening

正如物体随着远离观察者而尺寸似乎会缩小一样，身体的各个部分也是如此。换句话说，身体有视角，就像物体和风景一样。当这种现象（透视）应用于身体时，称为透视。

Just as an object appears to diminish in size as it moves farther away from the viewer, so do parts of the body. In other words, the body has perspective, just as objects and landscapes do. When this phenomenon, perspective, is applied to the body, it’s called foreshortening.

我认为这是一个非常具有描述性的词，因为无论手臂或腿“向后”还是“向前”，它看起来都比其实际尺寸短。

I think that it’s a very descriptive word, because whether an arm or leg “goes back” or “comes forward” it appears to be shorter than its actual dimensions.

在图 B中，您可以看到身体的大部分以及身体的圆柱形形状在透视缩短时会发生什么。复制这个图。注意当人物左右或前后弯曲时，躯干在腰部如何“断裂”。还要注意手和脚的大小与头部长度的关系。

In Figure B you see the bulk of the body and what happens to the body’s cylindrical forms when they’re foreshortened. Copy this figure. Notice how the torso “breaks” at the waist when the figure bends from side to side or back and forth. Notice also how the hands and feet relate in size to the length of the head.

当我学会构建基本的看到这里，我的喜悦之情溢于言表。我可以坐在任何地方，以任何我想要的位置画它，无论姿势多么复杂。我做了成百上千个动作——跳舞、跳跃、跑步、投球等等（图C）。

When I learned to construct the basic figure, my joy knew no bounds. I could sit down anywhere and draw it in any position I wished, no matter how complicated the pose. I did hundreds upon hundreds of figures—dancing, jumping, running, pitching a ball, etc. (Figure C).

绘画来自生活

Drawing from Life

即使您买不起自己的真人模特，大多数相当大的城镇都会开设某种类型的写生课程，其中有真人模特在场。如果您正在与自己的模特一起工作，请让他（或她）保持放松的姿势，以免造成压力。即便如此，大约每十五分钟询问你的模特是否想休息。他会认为你是最体贴的，并竭尽全力——这不是双关语。

Even if you can’t afford your own live model, most fairly large towns have some type of life drawing class where a live model is present. If you’re working with your own model, pose him (or her) in a relaxed position that won’t be a strain. Even so, about every fifteen minutes, ask your model if he would like to rest. He’ll think you most considerate and put his best foot forward—no pun intended.

请遵循与渲染其他主题相同的绘制过程。寻找一个部分与另一部分的关系并在大的形式中进行块化。在头顶做一个标记，在脚上做一个标记；然后你就可以轻松判断躯干的位置以及它的长度、角度和周长应该是多少。从这里您可以继续放置四肢。腿的长度已经由您之前指出的脚的标记确定，应该不是什么大问题。然后检查手臂的角度和长度以及它们可能有的任何缩短。（请参阅项目末尾的演示。）

Follow the same drawing procedure that you’ve used for rendering other subjects. Look for the relationship of one part to another and block in the large forms. Make a mark for the top of the head and another for the feet; then you can easily judge where the torso belongs and what its length, angle, and girth should be. From here you can go on to the placement of the limbs. The length of the legs, already determined by the mark made for the feet that you indicated earlier, shouldn’t be much of a problem. Then check the angle and the length of the arms and whatever foreshortening they may have. (See the demonstrations at the end of the project.)

处理整个图形

Working Over the Whole Figure

专注于身体各个部位的正确关系和比例。当你开始绘制图形时，请确保有足够的空间来完全完成它。没有什么比看到学生专注于人物的躯干，完成最微小的细节，然后发现人物的腿部没有空间更令人痛苦的了。

Concentrate on correct relationships and proportions of individual parts of the body. As you begin blocking in your figure, be sure that there’s enough room to do it entirely. There’s nothing more distressing than to see a student absorbed on a torso of a figure, finishing it to the minutest detail, and then discovering that there’s no space left for the figure’s legs.

无论主题是什么，始终要对整个绘图进行处理。如果你在开始五分钟后停止，你的画应该​​是未完成的，但不是不完整的。

Always work on the entire drawing, no matter what the subject. If you were to stop five minutes after beginning, your drawing should be unfinished but not incomplete.

人物上的光与影

Light and Shadow on the Figure

将您的模特置于光线下，以凸显身体形态的坚固性。即使您决定一开始只画线条图，您的图形也必须传达三维体积的幻觉。

Place your model in a light that will bring out the solidity of the body forms. Even if you decide to do only a line drawing in the beginning, your figure must convey the illusion of the volume, of three dimensions.

光线在人物身上的作用创造了明暗的图案，可以传达其坚固性和尺寸。当您对基本比例有信心时，请添加阴影。用铅笔或木炭（现阶段最合适的介质）渲染人物的阴影区域。您可以在这些阴影区域的色调上使用树桩来进一步增强其平滑度。揉捏橡皮擦非常适合去除高光和强调轮廓。

The play of light on the human figure creates the patterns of light and dark that can convey its solidity and dimensions. When you feel confident about basic proportions, then add shading. Render the shadow areas of your figure in pencil or charcoal (the most suitable media at this stage). You can use the stump on the tone of these shadow areas to further enhance their smoothness. The kneaded eraser is good for lifting out highlights and emphasizing contours.

图 A。我希望您在绘制人体时考虑并应用圆柱形结构的原理。您可以首先指定几何圆柱体。这应该只是一个初步步骤。当你清晰地表达出实际的人体轮廓时，你会意识到你面前的形式的所有三个维度。稍后您可以完全放弃几何圆柱体并从图形的实际轮廓开始。

Figure A. I want you to consider and apply the principle of cylindrical construction as you draw the human body. You can begin by indicating the geometric cylinder first. This should only be a preliminary step. As you articulate the actual human contours, you’ll be conscious of all three dimensions in the forms before you. Later you can dispense with the geometric cylinder altogether and begin with the actual contours of the figure.

图 B。在这里，我构建了一个女性人物，其基本的圆柱形组件是单独绘制的。它们在整个图中的相对位置用箭头表示。除了圆柱体之外，请注意球体在乳房形状中也发挥着作用。形成头部的球体被修改为鸡蛋形状。请记住，圆柱形图形只是达到目的的一种手段——绘制比例正确的人体图形。

Figure B. Here I’ve constructed a female figure with its basic cylindrical components drawn separately. Their relative positions within the whole figure are indicated with arrows. Besides the cylinder, notice that the sphere plays a part in the shape of the breasts. The sphere that forms the head is modified into an egg shape. Remember the cylindrical figure is only a means to an end—drawing a correctly proportioned human figure.

图 C.尝试每天至少花十五分钟从各个角度从各个位置绘制基本圆柱形图形。与绘画的其他基础一样，“练习”是执行力的关键。

Figure C. Try to spend at least fifteen minutes every day drawing the basic cylindrical figure in every position and from every angle. As with the other fundamentals of drawing, “practice” is the key to facility of execution.

图 D。最终，只要您始终了解身体各部件的体积和重量，您就可以放弃基本的圆柱形图形。

Figure D. Eventually, you can dispense with the basic cylindrical figure, provided you remain constantly aware of the volume and weight of the body’s components.

斜倚裸体，第 1 步：我首先尝试以块的形式捕捉模特身体的优雅节奏。我仔细研究比例并获得尺寸感。请注意她下方弯曲的缩短的腿。我在工作时也会考虑构图。我在她身后引入了一些折叠的、弯曲的窗帘，打破了她背部几乎笔直的线条。

Reclining Nude, Step 1: I begin by trying to capture in block form the graceful rhythms of my model’s body. I work carefully on proportions and in achieving a sense of dimension. Notice the foreshortened leg bent underneath her. I also consider composition as I work. I break up the almost straight line of her back by introducing some folded, curved drapery behind her.

斜倚裸体，步骤 2：这里我考虑色调方案。灯光和黑暗的位置有助于增加她的身体体积。此外，她弯曲的腿上的阴影强调了透视效果。第一步我使用普通的办公铅笔，并在此处添加阴影。

Reclining Nude, Step 2: Here I consider the tonal scheme. The positioning of the lights and darks helps to give her body volume. Also, the shading on her bent leg emphasizes the foreshortening. I use a regular office pencil in the first step, and add shadows here.

裸体坐姿，第 1 步：这里我使用我的广告艺术垫和一支炭笔。我首先画出模特身材的大形状和比例。我使用圆柱形结构来阐明她身体各个形态的比例和方向。请注意，她的左腿几乎直接指向您。

Seated Nude, Step 1: Here I use my Ad Art pad and a charcoal pencil. I first block in the large forms and proportions of the model’s figure. I use cylindrical construction to clarify the proportion and direction of her body’s individual forms. Note that her left leg is directed almost squarely at you.

坐着的裸体，第 2 步：当你渲染灯光和阴影时，就像我在这里所做的那样，想象你可以触摸到身体表面的弹性或坚固性。请注意模特锁骨和膝盖的清晰轮廓。在这些区域，骨头靠近皮肤表面。她的胸部和大腿有较柔和的过渡。

Seated Nude, Step 2: As you render lights and shadows, as I’ve done here, imagine that you can touch the resiliency, or the firmness, of the body’s surface. Note the sharp delineation of my model’s clavicle and knees. In these areas the bones come close to the skin’s surface. There are softer transitions on her breast and thighs.

项目 17

绘图手和脚

PROJECT 17

Drawing Hands and Feet

多年来我注意到学生们往往忽视（或完全忽视）脚和手。他们在腿部和手臂上可以做足够的工作，但当他们到达四肢时，他们的热情已经减弱，他们的视力也消失了。在这里我希望你扭转这种趋势，至少一个月内一有机会就专心画手和脚。它们并不比咖啡壶更难画；是的，它们更复杂，但这只意味着更多的练习，而不是对你的艺术资源的更大要求。

I’ve noticed over the years that the students tend to disregard (or completely ignore) feet and hands. They’ll do an adequate job on legs and arms, but by the time they reach the extremities their enthusiasm has waned and their vision is spent. Here I’d like you to reverse this trend and concentrate on drawing nothing but hands and feet at every chance you get for at least a month. They aren’t any more difficult to draw than a coffee pot; they’re more complex, yes, but that only means more practice, not a greater demand on your artistic resources.

画脚

Drawing Feet

我希望我能给你处理脚和手的具体图表，但由于这里涉及的基本形式多种多样（因人而异），所以不太实用。与任何其他物体一样，首先要确定脚的整体形状。然后，开始细分。始终留意大块的骨头和肌腱。开始自己绘制线条，然后绘制轮廓并建模形状（图 A）。如果没有人可以给你摆姿势，那么就尽可能多地画出你自己的脚和左（或右手）手。

I wish I could give you specific diagrams for dealing with feet and hands, but since the basic forms involved here are so varied (changing with each person), it wouldn’t be practical. Simply begin by establishing the foot’s overall shape first—as with any other object. Then, start the subdivisions. Always keep an eye on the large masses of the bones and the tendons. Begin your own drawings in line, then develop the contours and model the forms (Figure A). If no one can pose for you, then draw your own feet and your left (or right) hand in as many positions as possible.

确定正确的比例后，将绘图放在另一张纸下并开始完善。注意脚部轮廓的锐利和柔软，具体取决于骨骼与皮肤表面的距离。这些段落可以通过使用不同的音调值来区分。在您在原始线条图中绘制的直线上，发现脚的轮廓在哪里下降和在哪里上升。您可以将相同的方法应用于手绘。

When you’re finished establishing the correct proportions, place your drawing under another sheet of paper and begin its refinement. Pay attention to the sharp and soft contours of the feet, depending on how close the bones are to the skin’s surface. These passages can be differentiated by using different tonal values. Discover where the foot’s contour dips and where it rises on the straight line that you have set down in your original line drawing. You can apply the very same approach to the drawing of hands.

画手

Drawing Hands

我会再次请你感受一下你的手指、手腕和手臂。我还希望您在观察模型时体验到您“感觉到”的体积和重量。开始在不建模的情况下沿直线绘制手的轮廓。只要集中精力确定正确的关系即可；请注意，手（和脚）占据一定的空间。

I’ll ask you again to feel your fingers, your wrist, and your arm. The volume and weight that you “feel” I’d also like you to experience as you observe your model. Begin drawing the contour of the hand in line without modeling. Just concentrate on pinning down the correct relationships; be aware that hands (and feet) occupy a certain space.

手指基本上是圆柱形的；手和手腕是立方体，手臂的起点也是圆柱形（图B）。我使用这些基本形状是为了让您了解它们的体积，而不仅仅是灌输它们的基本结构。如果您愿意，您可以轻松地将手指想象为立方体，将手腕想象为圆柱形，只要您传达它们的三维特征即可。我忍不住要强调这一点，因为很多学生倾向于把他们画的所有东西都压平。

The fingers are basically cylindrical; the hand and wrist are cubic and the beginning of the arm is also cylindrical (Figure B). I’ve used these basic shapes to make you aware of their volume, not just to inculcate their basic construction. If you wish, you can just as easily visualize the fingers as cubic and the wrist as cylindrical, as long as you convey their three-dimensional character. I can’t help stressing this point, because many students tend to flatten everything they draw.

当开始渲染细节时，请务必标明关节、指关节以及骨骼靠近皮肤表面的任何其他位置。手的指关节大约位于手指尖和手背末端的中间位置。

When you begin the rendering of details be sure to indicate the joints, knuckles, and any other places where the bone comes close to the skin’s surface. The knuckles of the hand are about halfway between the tips of the fingers and the end of the back of the hand.

寻找你的利基市场

Finding Your Niche

该项目中的演示和图形实际上只是为了帮助您入门。我指出的原则只是您自己发现的一部分。我不知道写生是否对你有吸引力。也许风景是您的最爱，或者您计划专注于静物画。或者你喜欢在阳光下画任何东西吗？无论您的意愿如何，我都强烈建议您完成本书中的每个项目。无论您最终“专攻”哪个领域，这都将是很好的培训。

The demonstrations and figures in this project are really just to get you started. The principles I’ve pointed out are only part of the discoveries you’ll make for yourself. I’ve no way of knowing if life drawing appeals to you. Perhaps landscape is your cup of tea, or maybe you plan to specialize in still life. Or do you rejoice in drawing anything under the sun? Whatever your inclination, I urge you to do every project in this book. It will be fine training, no matter what area you’ll eventually “specialize” in.

图 A.最佳方法画手和脚就是将它们视为独立的实体。专注于它们，暂时忘记身体的其他部分。开始画一只脚，画出其整体形状的简单轮廓。然后，在脚跟和脚趾顶部之间进行必要的细分。问自己这样的问题：脚趾相对于整个脚有多长？踝骨与脚跟的关系在哪里？

Figure A. The best approach in drawing hands and feet is to consider them as separate entities. Concentrate on them, forgetting the rest of the body for the time being. Begin drawing a foot with a simple outline of its overall shape. Then, make the necessary subdivisions between the heel and the top of the toes. Ask yourself such questions as these: How long are the toes in relation to the entire foot? Where is the ankle bone in relation to the heel?

图B.手或任何物体的主要形式的阻塞是写实绘画的开始和基础。这些简单的“地图”或线条图可以帮助您确定手的一个部分与另一部分的长度、宽度、厚度以及正确的关系。将这些初步指示放在一张新纸下，然后开始您的现实绘画。在这个阶段，您可以寻找轮廓的微妙之处和细节的精致，因为正确比例的问题已经解决了。我在这个项目中的所有绘图都使用了普通的办公铅笔。

Figure B. Blocking in the main forms of the hand, or any object, is the beginning and the foundation of realistic drawing. These simple “maps” or line drawings help you determine the length, width, thickness, and correct relationships of one part of the hand to another. Slip these preliminary indications under a fresh sheet of paper and begin your realistic drawing. At this stage you can look for the subtleties of contour and the refinements of detail, because the problems of correct proportions have already been solved. I’ve used an ordinary office pencil for all the drawings in this project.

图C。三十天练习画手和脚听起来像是一个强加的刑罚，但相信我，事实并非如此。如果您需要时没有可用的模型，请在您可以控制的每个位置画出您自己的左（或右手）手。

Figure C. To practice drawing hands and feet for thirty days sounds like an imposed sentence but, believe me, it’s not. If there aren’t any models available when you need them, then draw your own left (or right) hand in every position you can manage.

脚部比例，第 1 步：首先通过绘制大形状来开始绘制脚部。现在感受一下您的脚踝，您会发现内脚踝 (A) 比外脚踝高。

Foot Proportions, Step 1: Begin drawing the foot by blocking in the large shapes first. Feel your ankle right now and you’ll discover that the inner ankle is higher (A) than the outer one.

脚部比例，第 2 步：要创建更完整的渲染，您可以将线条图放在一张新纸下，然后专注于细节，就像我在这里所做的那样。

Foot Proportions, Step 2: To create a more finished rendering, you can slip your line drawing under a fresh sheet of paper and then concentrate on the detail, as I’ve done here.

手部比例，第 1 步：我通过确定大的形状和各组成部分的正确比例来开始绘制手部。请注意，手背通常是弯曲的 (B)，除非将其压在平面上；然后它就平坦了。

Hand Proportions, Step 1: I begin my drawing of the hand by establishing the big shapes and correct proportions of its component parts. Notice that the back of the hand is usually curved (B) unless it’s pressed down upon a plane; then it’s flat.

手部比例，第 2 步：在更完成的绘图中，我专注于阴影图案。我特别注意那些骨头靠近皮肤表面的部位：手腕和指关节。

Hand Proportions, Step 2: In the more finished drawing, I concentrate on the shadow patterns. I pay particular attention to those parts where bones come close to the skin’s surface: the wrist and knuckles.

项目 18

绘图头和面孔

PROJECT 18

Drawing Heads and Faces

画头部可以永远令人着迷。无论您身在何处（在家或工作），都会有人供您学习。你实际上不必画这些人，而是观察他们。试着记住他们头部平面的排列、五官的关系、眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴和脖子的角度的结构。在你准备拿起铅笔开始绘画之前，这些都是值得记住的要点。当然，当你在观察时，你已经在画画了，尽管你还没有在纸上做记号。最好在口袋或钱包里放一个小素描本，在观看这些人的同时实际画出他们。尝试获得整体印象，而不是完美的相似。

Drawing the head can be perpetually fascinating. Wherever you may be—at home or at work—there’ll be someone for you to study. You don’t actually have to draw these people, but observe them. Try to remember the arrangement of the planes of their heads, the relationship of the features, the construction of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, and the angle of the neck. These are all valuable points to recall before you’re ready to pick up the pencil and begin drawing. Of course, while you’re observing, you’re already drawing, even though you haven’t made a mark on the paper. It would be even better yet to carry a small sketch pad in your pocket or purse and actually draw these people while you watch them. Try for a total impression rather than a perfect likeness.

一般程序

A General Procedure

如果您不熟悉头部的斜坡、突起和空腔，则无法正确绘制头部，即使是成直线的（图 A）。感受额头的倾斜度、眼窝和鼻梁。当你画头部和面部特征时，感受它们如何“出来”、“进去”或变成一个平面。还要注意五官和整个头部本身的形状如何根据观看角度而变化。

You can’t draw a head properly, even in line, if you’re not acquainted with its slopes, protuberances, and cavities (Figure A). Feel the slope of your forehead, the cavity of your eyes, and the ridge of your nose. As you draw the head and facial features, feel how they “come out”, “go in”, or turn onto a flat plane. Also notice how the features and the entire head itself change in shape depending on the angle from which they’re viewed.

绘制头部有一个简单的四步过程，我将在这里简要说明，并在该项目中进一步详细解释。

There’s a simple four-step procedure for drawing the head which I’ll state briefly here and explain in detail further along in this project.

首先画出头部的基本蛋形。然后，绘制指导线以帮助您定位面部特征。接下来，渲染各个特征。最后，画出大发量。完成这四个步骤后，您就可以返回到微小细节的渲染。

Begin by drawing the basic egg shape of the head. Then, draw the guidelines to help you position the facial features. Next, render the individual features. Finally, sketch in the large hair mass. Once these four steps are done, then you can return to the rendering of minute detail.

头部的角度和平面

Angles and Planes of the Head

当你画蛋形的头部时，注意你是从下面还是从上面看它，以及头部倾斜的程度。请注意图 B左上角头部的直线发生了什么。它们现在向上弯曲，因为你是从下面看头部。由于头部也倾斜，因此其中心线（A）也倾斜。

As you draw the egg-shaped head, notice whether you’re looking at it from below or from above, and to what degree the head is slanted. Notice what happens to the straight lines on the head in the upper left corner of Figure B. They now curve up because you’re looking at the head from below. Since the head is also tilted, its center line (A) is also at a slant.

研究指南如何遵循图 B中头部的特定角度和观点。制作这些男性和女性头部是为了向您展示，两性的头部平面是相同的，但女性的头部平面有所软化。让我指出，这些图只是作为参考点的图表。它们不是活生生的人的画作。

Study how the guidelines follow the particular angle and viewpoint of the heads in Figure B. These male and female heads were done to show you that the head’s planes are the same on both sexes, but softened on the female. Let me point out that these drawings are only diagrams to serve as points of reference. They aren’t drawings of live people.

面部指南

Facial Guidelines

当你开始画头部和脸部时，不要立即尝试模仿。尽快拼出基本的鸡蛋形状（图C）。现在以 45° 角画出“蛋”头（图 D，左）。在蛋的顶部和底部中间，画一条线作为眼睛的位置。在眉毛和下巴之间再画一条线；这是鼻子底部的位置。鼻子底部和下巴之间的中间是下唇的边缘。

When you begin to draw the head and face, don’t immediately try for a likeness. Block in as quickly as possible the basic egg shape (Figure C). Now draw the “egg” head at a 45° angle (Figure D, left.) Halfway between the top and bottom of the egg, draw a line for the placement of the eyes. Draw another line halfway between the eyebrow and the chin; this is the position for the base of the nose. Halfway between the base of the nose and the chin is the edge of the lower lip.

在图 D中，我绘制了脸部或轮廓的侧视图。适用于侧面视图的“一半”测量值也适用于直视脸部时（图 E）。唯一需要额外考虑的是在椭圆形中心放置一条线，将脸部一分为二。这条线将帮助您垂直对齐面部特征并创建面部的对称性。

In Figure D, I drew the side view of the face or profile. The “half” measurements that apply to the profile view also apply when the face is viewed straight on (Figure E). The only additional consideration is the placement of a line down the center of the oval, bisecting the face. This line will help you to align the facial features vertically and create the symmetry of the face.

男性和女性特征

Male and Female Features

刚才提到的比例适用于男性和女性头部。男性特征往往更有棱角，而女性特征则具有更柔和的轮廓。然而，它们在面部的位置和相对比例是相同的（图F和G）。

The proportions just mentioned apply to both the male and female head. Male features tend to be a bit more angular while female features are characterized by a softer contour. However, their placement within the face and their relative proportions are the same (Figures F and G).

正如您在剖面图和前视图中看到的那样，特征的位置由直线指示。然而，当你倾斜头部时，这些直线就会弯曲，因为它们遵循头部蛋形的轮廓。

The placement of the features, as you see them in profile and front view, are indicated by straight lines. However, the moment you slant and tilt the head these straight lines curve, because they follow the contour of the egg shape of the head.

从生活中画出头部和面部

Drawing the Head and Face from Life

在我们进一步讨论之前，让我先说一下，我给你的尺寸和比例是相对的。它们只是指导方针。当你画一个真实的人时（当你从生活中画画时），他特定的头部结构和特征将偏离这些“理想”尺寸。这就是为什么你不应该盲目地遵守这些“规则”。只需训练您的眼睛和手来观察和渲染面部和特征，了解它们与这些理想尺寸的差异（图 H）。

Before we proceed too much further, let me say that the measurements and proportions that I give you are relative. They’re only guidelines. When you draw an actual person (when you draw from life) his particular head structure and features will depart from these “ideal” dimensions. That’s why you shouldn’t adhere slavishly to these “rules”. Simply train your eye and hand to observe and render faces and features in terms of how they differ from these ideal dimensions (Figure H).

画鼻子

Drawing the Nose

正如你现在可以轻松地将整个头部想象成一个鸡蛋，并有明确的划分来放置特征一样，我希望你也知道每个特征本身的结构：眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴和身体。耳朵。

Just as you can now easily visualize the entire head as an egg with definite divisions for the placement of features, I should like you to know just as well the construction of each feature itself: the eye, the nose, the mouth, and the ears.

鼻子在四个不同的平面上呈立方体上升：顶脊、两个侧平面和底座（图一）。请注意，真实的鼻子（右）如何符合这种简单的封闭形状（左）的基本结构。

The nose rises cubically in four distinct planes: the top ridge, two side planes, and the base (Figure I). Notice how the realistic nose (right) conforms to this simple basic construction of the blocked-in shape (left).

光线对于描绘鼻子的基本轮廓起着重要作用。请注意，图一中顶部平坦的山脊接收了大部分光线，而倾斜的侧面则处于阴影中。

Light plays an important part in delineating the basic contours of the nose. Note that the top, flat ridge in Figure I is receiving most of the light, while the sloping sides are in shadow.

画耳朵

Drawing Ears

有关耳朵的检查分为三等分。耳朵的中央三分之一被“碗”占据。匹配划分图 J与您面前的模型相对应。您可能会发现您所绘制的实际耳朵与图 J右侧的图表一样分布不均匀。然而，耳朵的三个部分始终存在，无论个体之间的比例如何夸大。

The divisions to check concerning the ear are in thirds. The center third of the ear is occupied by the “bowl”. Match the divisions of Figure J against the model before you. You may find that the actual ear you’re drawing is as unequally divided as the diagram at the right of Figure J. However, the three divisions of the ear are always present, regardless of the exaggerations in proportion that may occur among individuals.

绘画眼睛和眉毛

Drawing Eyes and Eyebrows

如果鼻子是立方形的，那么眼睛就是球形的。在图 K最左侧的图中，您可以看到整个球体，因为我希望您在将眼睑盖在整个眼球上时能够意识到整个眼球。当您添加睫毛甚至“化妆”时，永远不要忽视眼睛的基本球形结构。研究图表；箭头沿着眼睑，向下倾斜到其下方眼球的弧度。该箭头以图形方式描述了面部本身的突起和凹陷。面部的所有特征都必须符合其骨骼结构。

If the nose is cubic, the eye is spherical. In the diagram on the far left of Figure K you see the entire sphere, because I want you to be aware of the entire eyeball when you draw the lids over it. When you add the eyelashes—and even “makeup”—never lose sight of the eye’s fundamentally spherical construction. Study the diagram; the arrow follows the lid, and dips down on the curvature of the eyeball below it. This arrow graphically describes the protuberances and cavities of the face itself. All the features of the face must conform to its bony structure.

尽管眼睛可能因“化妆”或年老而被伪装，但它们仍然遵循与图 K中的眼睛相同的绘画基础原理。时尚可能会以无数种方式改变眉毛，但你必须记住的是，它们遵循眉毛的骨脊。

Although eyes may be camouflaged by “makeup” or old age, they’re still subject to the same fundamentals of drawing as the eyes in Figure K. Fashion may tamper with eyebrows in countless ways, but all you have to remember is that they follow the brows’ bony ridges.

画嘴

Drawing the Mouth

如图L所示，上唇由三部分组成。第 1 部分和第 3 部分是其两侧的“翅膀”；第 2 部分是口腔中心肿胀的盾状部分，称为结节。这三个部分的名称并不重要。重要的是你必须意识到这些分区：上唇的三个分区和下唇的两个分区。

As you can see in Figure L, the upper lip consists of three parts. Parts 1 and 3 are the “wings” on its sides; part 2 is the swollen center of the mouth in the shape of a shield, called the tubercle. The names of these three parts aren’t really important. What does matter is that you must be aware of these divisions: the three divisions on the upper lip and the two divisions of the lower lip.

从记忆中汲取生命？

Life Drawing from Memory?

如果你画的头像原来是肖像，那就更好了。但你在这个项目中要做的头部的目的主要是训练你的手、眼睛和记忆力。你问这里的用词不矛盾吗？生活中的绘画如何利用记忆？毕竟，模型就在您面前。

If the heads you draw turn out to be portraits, so much the better. But the purpose of the heads you’re going to do in this project is primarily to train your hand, eye, and memory. Isn’t there a contradiction in terms here, you ask? How can drawing from life utilize memory? After all, the model is right in front of you.

这只是记住你面前的图像的问题。当您将视线从模型上移开并回头看论文以记录您所看到的内容时，您的脑海中就会浮现出模型的图像。你已经记住了模型。由此可见，画得越多，记住的就越多；最终你可以在没有模型的情况下完成最好的工作。但现在我希望你所有的绘画都取材于生活。

It’s a matter of memorizing the image before you. When you take your eyes away from the model to look back at your paper to record what you’ve seen, you hold an image of the model in your mind. You’ve memorized the model. It follows that the more you draw, the more you’ll memorize; eventually you may do your best work without a model at all. But right now I’d like you to do all your drawing from life.

图A。永远不要忽视头部的框架及其简单的平面、脊和凹陷。它提供了一个基础，您可以稍后对其进行修改以适应您所绘制的人物的特定特征。

Figure A. Never lose sight of the head’s framework with its simple planes, ridges, and depressions. It provides a foundation which you can modify later to suit the particular characteristics of the individual you are drawing.

图 B.您必须始终注意头部的倾斜。无论您是拍摄前视图还是四分之三视图，指示头部蛋形的第一条线都是中心参考线 (A)。然后，无论头部如何倾斜，您都应该将水平参考线与其成直角。

Figure B. You must always be aware of the slant of the head. Whether you’re doing a front or three-quarter view, the first line to indicate on the head’s egg shape is the center guideline (A). Then, you should place your horizontal guidelines at right angles to it, no matter how the head tilts.

图 C.这里的基本形式非常熟悉，无需注释。我想介绍的新基本形状是绘制头部的基础，即右侧的鸡蛋形状。从冰箱里取出一个真正的鸡蛋，并将其握在手中。感受一下它的体积和重量！当你开始绘画时请记住这一点。

Figure C. The basic forms here are so familiar that they need no comment. The new basic form I’d like to introduce as the basis for drawing the head is the egg shape at the right. Take a real egg from the refrigerator and hold it in your hand. Feel its volume and weight! Remember this when you begin drawing.

图 D.以大约 45° 角绘制鸡蛋。这里的指南将帮助您定位功能并且非常容易记住。这只是“一半”的问题。中间是眼睛。眉毛和下巴的中间是鼻根，鼻根和下巴的中间是下唇边缘。

Figure D. Draw the egg at about a 45° angle. The guidelines here will help you position the features and are quite simple to remember. It’s just a matter of “halves.” Halfway down is the eye. Halfway between the eyebrow and the chin is the base of the nose, and halfway between the base of the nose and the chin is the edge of the lower lip.

图 E.当然，“中间”测量值适用于头部前视图以及侧面视图或四分之三视图。注意这里的鸡蛋是直立的。尽管颈部实际上被认为是上躯干的一部分，但请尝试将其和肩膀包括在内。

Figure E. Naturally the “halfway” measurements hold true for a front view of the head as well as a profile or three-quarter view. Notice that the egg here is upright. Although the neck is actually considered part of the upper torso, try to include it and the shoulders.

图 F.特征的基本划分适用于男女。男性身上的平面更加清晰和突出。他的下巴和下巴更有棱角；与女性柔和的轮廓相比，他的鼻子、前额和嘴巴更加“轮廓分明”。不过，两人的五官依然落在脸上的同一个地方。当你画实际的头部时，请记住这些面部关系。从这些参考点检查模型特征的偏差。

Figure F. The basic divisions for the features apply to both sexes. The planes are a bit more defined and accentuated on the male. His chin and jaw are more angular; his nose, forehead, and mouth more “chiseled” in contrast to the softer contours of the female. However, the features of both still fall in the same places on the face. Remember these facial relationships when you draw the actual head. Check the departures of your model’s features from these points of reference.

图 G.从正面观察和从侧面观察时，男性和女性特征的关系是相同的。复制这些图表，直到规定的测量结果铭刻在您的脑海中。

Figure G. The relationships of the male and female features are the same when viewed from the front as when viewed in profile. Copy these diagrams until the prescribed measurements are engraved in your mind.

图H。在每个可以想象的位置画同一个人。如果模特是女孩，请让她用不同的方式整理头发，就像我对霍莉所做的那样。尝试用线条和色调来绘画。

Figure H. Draw the same person in every conceivable position. If the model is a girl, ask her to fix her hair in different ways, as I’ve done here with Holly. Try drawing in both line and tone.

图一。鼻子的基本结构由四个不同的平面组成：顶脊、两侧平面和基部。

Figure I. The basic structure of the nose consists of four distinct planes: the top ridge, the two side planes, and the base.

图 J.耳朵分为三个主要部分。

Figure J. The ear falls into three major divisions.

图 K。尽管有眼睑、化妆或任何其他“额外”形状，但眼睛的结构基本上是球形的。

Figure K. Despite its eyelid, makeup, or any other “extra” shape, the eye is basically spherical in construction.

图L。嘴由两部分组成：上唇和下唇。这两部分还有进一步的划分。上唇有三个不同的部分或区域；下唇有两个。请注意，嘴唇与眼睛一样，遵循头部的空腔和突起（如箭头所示）。

Figure L. The mouth consists of two parts: upper lip and lower lip. These two parts have further divisions. The upper lip has three distinct divisions or areas; the lower lip has two. Notice that the lip, like the eye, follows the cavities and protuberances of the head (indicated by the arrow).

图M。这里显示的面部特征表明，无论它们的主人多大或多年轻，它们仍然必须符合其基本的几何结构。画出鼻子、眼睛、只要有机会，就用嘴和耳朵。然后，当你画一个特定人物的五官时，你就会彻底熟悉五官的基本形状。

Figure M. The facial features shown here illustrate that no matter how old or young their owners may be they must still conform to their basic geometric construction. Draw noses, eyes, mouths, and ears whenever you get the chance. Then, when you draw the features of a particular person, you’ll be thoroughly familiar with basic shapes of features.

我的妻子，第一步：我首先指出形成头部底层结构的蛋形。将模型放置在清晰分离阴影区域的光线下，以凸显您正在绘制的形状的坚固性。

My Wife, Step 1: I begin by indicating the egg shape that forms the underlying structure of the head. Pose your model in a light that clearly separates the shadow areas to bring out the solidity of the forms you’re drawing.

我的妻子，第 2 步：始终牢记现实渲染下方的平面、空腔和脊线。我用木炭在新闻纸上完成了我妻子的肖像画。

My Wife, Step 2: Always keep in mind the planes, the cavities, and the ridges that are beneath your realistic rendering. I’ve done this finished portrait of my wife with charcoal on newsprint.

男性研究，第一步：我在一张灰色纸上完成了这个演示。当你画画时，尽量不要画得比头高五英寸。也许，在您开发的这个阶段，最好准备一份工作图，然后仅将线条结构转移到有色纸上。您可以使用#4B 或#6B 铅笔将工作图的背面涂黑。但更好的是，使用单独的转印纸。

Male Study, Step 1: I’ve done this demonstration on a gray tinted paper. When you draw, try not to work smaller than a head five inches high. Perhaps, at this stage of your development, it would be better to prepare a working drawing and then transfer only the line structure to the tinted paper. You can blacken the back of your working drawing with a #4B or #6B pencil. But better yet, use a separate transfer paper.

男性研究，第 2 步：现在我拿起​​一块藤炭或一支 #2B 木炭铅笔，开始渲染细节和阴影。然后我拿一块揉好的橡皮擦，将其塑造成所需的形状。我用它来拾取额头、​​鼻子、颧骨、嘴巴和下巴上的高光。您会发现某些区域必须将橡皮擦按到某个点。但在较大的区域，您将需要圆形、更宽的边缘。

Male Study, Step 2: Now I take a piece of vine charcoal or a #2B charcoal pencil and begin the rendering of details and shadows. Then I take a kneaded eraser and mold it to the required shape. I use it to pick up the highlights on the forehead, the nose, cheekbone, mouth, and chin. You’ll find that you have to press the eraser to a point for some areas. But in larger areas you’ll need a round, broader edge.

男性研究，第三步：尝试使用不同灰色调的纸张。始终确保灰色调足够深，以便当您用橡皮擦拿起它们时，高光会显示出来。使用调色纸而不是白色纸的原因是中间值已经由纸张本身确定。您所要做的就是渲染较暗的阴影并挑选出高光。

Male Study, Step 3: Try using paper in different tints of gray. Always make sure that the gray tone is deep enough so that the highlights will show when you pick them up with a kneaded eraser. The reason for using a toned paper rather than white is that the middle value is already established by the paper itself. All you have to do is to render the darker shadows and pick out the highlights.

图N。女士们在我的画作中占主导地位，因为能被她们包围是我的幸运。如果周围没有人，就看着镜子画自己。当您厌倦了正面视图时，可以使用两面镜子并从第二面镜子中绘制您的侧面。这幅画是用办公室铅笔在广告艺术垫上完成的。

Figure N. Ladies predominate in my drawings because it’s my good fortune to be surrounded by them. If there’s no one around, look in the glass and draw yourself. When you get tired of front views, use two mirrors and draw your profile from the second mirror. This drawing was done with an office pencil on an Ad Art pad.

项目19

绘画孩子们

PROJECT 19

Drawing Children

我把儿童和年轻人的画留到最后，因为在我看来，他们是最难画的。你可以要求成年人不要动，他通常会遵守。但当你要求孩子不要这样做时，通常只是他（或她）开始坐立不安的信号。此外，需要一种特殊的方法（总是超出我的能力）才能让孩子们明白我正在做的事情是非常严肃的。在他们看来（祝福他们），艺术家的所有喧嚣和愤怒都毫无意义。他们所表现出的智慧超出了他们的年龄！

I’ve left the drawing of children and young people until last because, in my opinion, they’re the most difficult to do. You can ask an adult not to move and he’ll usually comply. But when you ask a child not to do so, it’s usually only a signal for him—or her—to start fidgeting. Besides, it takes a special approach (always beyond me) to make children understand that what I’m doing is deadly serious. In their mind (bless them) all the sound and fury of the artist signifies nothing. What wisdom beyond their years they show!

然而，记录一切美好的事物是艺术家的职责。当你考虑到孩子的脸庞具有不可抗拒的可爱性时，那么，无论付出什么代价，你都必须找到方法来捕捉孩子或年轻人脸上的纯真、承诺和吸引力。

However, it’s the artist’s business to record everything that’s beautiful. When you consider the irresistible loveliness of a child’s face, then, no matter what the price, you must find ways of capturing that innocence, promise, and that appeal that dwells in a child’s, or young person’s, face.

绘制婴儿头部

Drawing the Infant’s Head

画婴儿时要记住两点。首先，就其特征而言，婴儿的头部比成人的头部大。此外，婴儿的眼睛低于成人眼睛的中线（图 A）。我确信，你无法不注意到“纽扣”鼻子、肥胖的脸颊、短脖子以及又高又浅的眉毛，这些进一步体现了婴儿和小孩的脸部特征。

There are two important points to remember when drawing babies. First, an infant’s head is larger than an adult’s in relation to his features. Also, a baby’s eyes fall below the middle line that serves as placement for an adult’s eyes (Figure A). You can’t, I’m sure, escape noticing the “button” nose, the fat cheeks, the short neck, and the high and light eyebrows that further characterize the baby and small child’s face.

学会观察儿童和成人之间的这些差异将极大地帮助您捕捉儿童的特殊品质。随着孩子的成长，检查他们的特征如何变得更加清晰。

Learning to observe these differences between child and adult will help you immensely in capturing the special quality of children. As children grow, check how their features become more clearly defined.

画少年

Drawing the Teenager

随着孩子年龄的增长，孩子脸部的比例会发生变化。当他到达时在“青少年”时期，孩子已经成熟并且几乎完全发育。青少年的眼睛到达中线，就像成人一样。事实上，所有控制成人面部特征位置的“一半”措施都可以用来描绘青少年的特征（图 B）。

The proportions of the child’s face change as the child grows older. By the time he reacheshis “teens,” the child has matured and is almost fully developed. The eyes of the adolescent reach the halfway line, just as they do in the adult. In fact, all the “half” measures that govern the placement of features in the adult face can be used to delineate the features in the young adolescent (Figure B).

儿童的男性和女性特征

Male and Female Characteristics in Children

你有多少次弄错了车厢里那个可爱的男婴（哎呀，我是说女孩）的身份。婴儿和幼儿的男性和女性特征没有太大区别。

How often have you mistaken the identity of that cute baby boy—whoops, I mean girl—in the carriage. There aren’t many distinctions between the male and female features of the baby and young child.

学龄儿童的头发长度和款式开始出现区别（图C）。当然，对于婴儿来说，这不是一个有效的区别。如今，到了十三岁左右，头发的长度也不再是性别的区别。但到那时，自然已经占据了主导地位，性别差异在面部和身材上都变得明显。

The school age child has the beginnings of distinction in the length and style of hair (Figure C). Of course, in infants this isn’t a valid distinction. And nowadays around thirteen the length of hair also ceases to be a sexual distinction. But by then nature has taken over, and sexual differences become apparent in both face and figure.

捕捉孩子的性格

Capturing a Child’s Character

孩子是不安分的动物，在摆姿势时可能会给你带来一些麻烦。但既然你还不担心客户或赞助人，那就尽你所能与周围的人相处。结果不一定是一模一样或一件艺术品。

Children, being restless creatures, will perhaps give you a spot of trouble in posing. But since you’re not yet worrying about a client or a patron, do the best you can with those around you. The result doesn’t have to be an exact likeness or a work of art.

我发现孩子们自然的姿势比任何安排好的姿势更具表现力。跟随一些孩子，捕捉他们“做自己的事情”（图 D）。

I find that the natural gestures of children are far more expressive than any arranged pose. Follow some children around and capture them “doing their thing” (Figure D).

首先尽可能快地了解孩子整个身材的姿势和整体比例。尝试捕捉整个姿势的印象——孩子的动作。不要担心建立完美的相似度。

Working as quickly as possible, first try to get the gesture of the child’s entire figure and his overall general proportions. Try to capture an impression of the total pose—the child’s action. Don’t be concerned with establishing a perfect likeness.

如果您愿意，可以将这个“粗糙”印象放在另一张纸下，然后开始细化轮廓和形状。然后你可以开发纹理以及他们的脚和手。但不要在任何地方尝试任何一丝不苟的“完成”。让整个绘画保持直接和自发。

Slip this “rough” impression under another sheet of paper, if you wish, and begin refining contours and shapes. You can then develop textures and their feet and hands. But don’t try for any meticulous “finish” anywhere. Let the whole drawing remain direct and spontaneous.

图 A.请注意，在前视图和侧面图中，婴儿头部的比例与成人的头部比例明显不同。婴儿的眼睛远低于成人脸部的中间标记。

Figure A. Notice that in both front view and profile the proportions of a baby’s head differ markedly from those of an adult. The baby’s eyes are well below the halfway mark that is used as a guideline in the adult face.

图 B.在青少年（男性或女性）中，面部比例恢复到成人面部的“中间”尺寸。

Figure B. In the adolescent (male or female), the facial proportions return to the “halfway” measurements of the adult face.

图 C.孩子身上几乎没有明显的男性或女性特征。头发的形状、风格和长度（仅限于幼儿！）可以帮助确定孩子脸部的性别；而服装则可以帮助辨别孩子的身材。

Figure C. There are few distinctively male or female characteristics in the child. The shape, style, and length of hair (in the young child only!) can help establish the sex of a child’s face; while clothing can help distinguish the child’s figure.

图 D：当我 14 岁的孩子做阅读作业时，我用便笺簿和铅笔跟着她在房子里转来转去。当她陷入各种自然态度时，我会要求她“坚持”几分钟。这些自然的姿势比研究过的“姿势”更令人满意、更富有表现力。

Figure D. With a pad and pencil I’ve followed my fourteen-year-old around the house while she was doing her reading homework. When she would fall into various natural attitudes I’d ask her to “hold it” for a few minutes. These natural positions are far more satisfying and expressive than studied “poses.”

图E。这是我女儿自然姿势的更多草图。该项目中的所有绘图都是用“办公室”铅笔在广告艺术垫#307 上完成的。你可能会认为我从比恩芳纸业公司得到了佣金，因为我经常提到他们的产品，但我没有。我只是认为他们的垫子是在干介质上绘画的最佳表面。

Figure E. Here are more sketches of my daughter in natural poses. All drawings in this project have been done with an “office” pencil on the Ad Art pad #307. You’d think I get a commission from the Bienfang Paper Company mentioning their product as often as I do, but I don’t. I just think their pad is the greatest surface for drawing in dry media.

项目20

洗涤技巧

PROJECT 20

Wash Techniques

有人批评水彩画是一种困难的媒介，最好由大师来创作。任何尝试这样做的学生只会感到悲伤和失望。你听过更糟糕的废话吗？没有人，无论多么有才华，生来就一手拿着画笔，另一只手拿着一盆颜料。事实上，一旦你熟悉了水彩画的特点，它就是一种很容易掌握的媒介。

There’s been a hue and cry about watercolor being a difficult medium, better left to the hands of a master; any student attempting it would only find grief and disappointment. Did you ever hear worse nonsense? No one, no matter how talented, is born with a brush in one hand and a pot of paint in the other. Actually, watercolor is an easy medium to handle once you get acquainted with its characteristics.

颜料和搅拌机

Pigment and Mixer

我们关心的水彩阶段称为水洗。它只需要一管黑色颜料和水；就这样。使用 Gamma Black 或灯黑（均由 Grumbacher 制备）和不同量的水作为介质，您可以获得从最浅的灰色到最深的黑色的任何色调（图 A）。

The phase of watercolor that we’re concerned with is called wash. It requires only a tube of black pigment and water; that’s all. With Gamma Black or lamp black—both prepared by Grumbacher—and varying amounts of water as a medium, you can get any tone you need from the palest gray to the darkest black (Figure A).

油漆中加的水越多，色调越浅；当然，颜料越多，水越少，色调就越深。但即使对于黑色通道，油漆也必须稀释，因为它来自管子，太厚而不易处理。

The more water you add to the paint, the lighter the tone; naturally, the more pigment and the less water, the darker the tone. But even for black passages, the paint must be thinned down since it’s too thick for easy handling as it comes from the tube.

表面

Surfaces

插图板为绘图提供了良好的表面（图A）。在您的开发阶段，最好的板材是 Bainbridge #80，单一厚度。合适的尺寸约为 11 英寸 × 14 英寸。另一个很好的插图板是 Grumbacher 的 #150，中等纹理。它采用 20 英寸 × 30 英寸的板材，可以切割成两块漂亮的 10 英寸 × 15 英寸的板。此时我推荐单厚度；之后您可以升级到双倍厚度和更昂贵的板。

Illustration board provides a good surface for a drawing (Figure A). A good board at your stage of development is Bainbridge #80, single thickness. A good size would be about 11″ × 14″. Another good illustration board is Grumbacher’s #150, medium texture. It comes in a 20″ × 30″ sheet that can be cut into two nice 10″ × 15″ boards. I recommend the single thickness at this time; later you can graduate to the double thickness and more expensive boards.

事实上，对于本项目中的练习，您可以使用 Aquabee #664 H 铜版纸垫。它很薄并且会起皱，但如果您不觉得这些特性令人烦恼，那么与最便宜的插图板的价格相比，您可以节省一大笔钱。

As a matter of fact, for the exercises in this project, you could use a pad of Aquabee #664 H bond paper. It’s thin and will crinkle, but if you don’t find these characteristics annoying, you could save a substantial sum compared to the price of even the cheapest illustration board.

刷子

Brushes

我在这个项目的练习中使用和推荐的画笔是 Winsor & Newton #3、#5 和 #7 尖头红貂毛刷，以及 1/2 英寸扁平貂毛刷（图A）。他们是最好的。我建议你可以少用其他材料，但我希望你只得到一流的刷子。如果你照顾它们，它们会听从你的命令，不会被哄骗，而且会持续更长时间。

The brushes I use and recommend for the exercises in this project are Winsor & Newton #3, #5, and #7 pointed, red sable brushes, as well as a ½″ flat sable (Figure A). They’re the best. I’ve suggested that you can skimp on other materials, but I’d like you to always get nothing but first-rate brushes. They do your bidding without coaxing and last longer, if you take care of them.

完成后，务必用清水彻底冲洗它们；将它们放在抹布上擦干，然后将它们重新塑造到原来的形状，然后将它们放回画笔盆中。

Always rinse them thoroughly in clean water when you’re finished; dry them on a rag and reshape them to their original point before you place them back in the brush pot.

附加设备

Additional Equipment

您需要一个屠夫托盘，在其中混合一大滩洗液，并压平和塑造刷子形状（图 A）。还需要一个调色板，一个带有倾斜和井孔的调色板，可以轻松地将各种色调分开。您还需要一个足够大的水容器，这样您就不必经常换水。

You’ll need a butcher’s tray in which to mix a large puddle of wash and to flatten and shape your brush (Figure A). A palette is also needed, one with slants and wells which easily keep your various tones separate. You’ll also want a container for water that’s large enough so that you won’t have to change the water too often.

您会发现一卷 1/2 英寸的遮蔽胶带很有用。您可以沿着绘图的边界拉伸它，以获得干净、均匀的边缘。当然，冲洗后需要用抹布擦掉刷子。揉捏橡皮擦用于淡化太暗的区域。稍后会详细介绍。

You’ll find that a roll of ½″ masking tape is useful. You can stretch it along the borders of your drawing for clean, even edges. Rags, of course, are necessary to wipe off your brushes after rinsing. A kneaded eraser is used for lightening areas that come off too dark. More about that later.

洗涤特性

Properties of Wash

使用水彩或水洗时，您必须从浅色开始，然后逐渐达到深色值。语气总是可以变暗，但不能变亮，至少不能很有效。

With watercolor, or wash, you must begin with the light and work down to the dark values. A tone can always be darkened, but it cannot be lightened, at least not very effectively.

与所有透明水彩一样，水洗使用纸张本身来绘制白色形状。无论您想在绘图中使用白色的任何区域都必须保持不变。必须在这些白色形状周围应用必要的色调。（图B）。洗完后，您可以用湿刷子“拾取”或提起形状。然而，它会是浅灰色，而不是纯白色（图C）。

Like all transparent watercolor, wash uses the paper itself for the white shapes. Whatever areas you want to have white in your drawing must be left untouched. The necessary tones must be applied around these white shapes. (Figure B). Once your wash is applied, you can “pick up” or lift out a shape with your damp brush. However, it will be a lighter gray, never pure white (Figure C).

有时，由于计算错误，某个区域变得太暗。然后，您可以通过用揉捏的橡皮擦来费力地擦拭它，使其变得更轻（图D）。尽管您可以获得所需的较浅音调，但我不推荐这种做法。这与介质的特性相反。另一种选择——我从来不喜欢——是扔掉整幅画并重新开始。

There are times when, through a miscalculation, an area turns out too dark. Then you can make it lighter by the laborious process of rubbing it with a kneaded eraser (Figure D). Even though you can get somewhat the desired lighter tone, I don’t recommend this practice. It’s contrary to the properties of the medium. The other alternative—which I’ve never liked—is to throw the entire drawing away and start again.

平洗

Flat Wash

在调色板的斜面或井中用水溶解一些灯黑（或伽玛黑）。用刷子将其混合。对于您的第一个练习，混合并匹配图 E中出现的四种灰色。通过纸张的白色和黑色，您将获得足够宽的色调范围，以适合未来项目中出现的绘图。

Dissolve some lamp black (or Gamma Black) with water in the slant or well of the palette. Use a brush to mix it. For your first exercise, mix and match the four grays that appear in Figure E. With the white of the paper and black, you’ll have a tonal range that’s wide enough for the drawings coming up in future projects.

当你测试完四种灰色后，拿起#7刷子并用大量的水洗。将插图板（或#644 H 绘图板）倾斜至距水平面约六英寸。从木板顶部开始，在不举起刷子的情况下，以之字形方式将水洼带下来（图 F）。您刚刚执行的操作称为平洗。

When you’ve tested the four grays, take the #7 brush and load it generously with wash. Tilt your illustration board (or #644 H drawing pad) about six inches from the horizontal. Begin at the top of the board, and without lifting the brush, bring your puddle of wash down in a zigzag manner (Figure F). What you’ve just executed is called a flat wash.

湿压湿技术

Wet-in-Wet Technique

通过湿压湿技术可以实现色调的无限混合。首先，将绘图表面放平。彻底弄湿你的纸或插图板，让水铺在上面。在刷子上涂上颜料并将其涂在潮湿的表面上。

An indefinite blending of tones can be obtained with a wet-in-wet technique. First, lay your drawing surface down flat. Wet your paper or illustration board thoroughly and let the water spread over it. Load your brush with pigment and apply it to the wet surface.

尝试不同程度的湿度——从被淹没的表面到几乎不潮湿的表面。您可以通过拿起纸张并将其向所需方向倾斜（图 G和H）来强制将某种图案融入混合中。

Experiment with different degrees of wetness—from a flooded surface to just barely damp. You can force a certain pattern into the blends by picking the paper up and tilting it in the desired direction (Figures G and H).

分级洗涤

Graded Wash

通过使用分级清洗，您可以实现色调从浅到深的逐渐变化，反之亦然。在屠夫托盘（或一个大白盘）上挤一点颜料。将 5 号或 7 号刷子（您可以轻松握住的刷子越大越好）浸入清水中。将部分黑色溶解成一个大水坑。冲洗你的刷子。再次将其浸入清水中，然后将刷子刷入水坑的外缘。

You can achieve a gradual change in tone from light to dark, or vice versa, by using a graded wash. Squeeze a dab of pigment on the butcher’s tray (or a large white plate). Dip your #5 or #7 brush (the larger the brush you can handle comfortably, the better) in clear water. Dissolve part of the black into a large puddle. Rinse your brush. Dip it into clear water again and work your brush into the outer fringes of the puddle.

在图中，我像我一样从 A 角开始。将画笔沿着纸张向下移动约半英寸。浸入水坑较稠密的部分，然后继续向下半英寸，稍微与第一条带重叠。重复这个过程，添加更深的灰色，直到你浸入黑色本身。

In Figure I begin, as I did, at corner A. Zigzag your brush about a half inch down your paper. Dip into a denser part of the puddle and continue downward another half inch, slightly overlapping the first strip. Repeat the process adding darker grays until you dip into the black itself.

要进行从深色到浅色的分级清洗，只需颠倒该过程即可。从最暗的值开始，随着您在纸上蜿蜒前进，添加越来越多的水。要进行垂直分级清洗，您需要转动纸张。

To do a graded wash from dark to light, simply reverse the process. Begin with the darkest value and add more and more water as you zigzag your way down the paper. To do a vertical graded wash, you turn your paper.

干的笔刷

Drybrush

有时，由于结构原因，您需要一些干笔段落。当相当干燥（未加载颜料）的画笔在纸上快速掠过时，就会产生这些效果。画笔仅将颜料沉积在纸张的脊线上。产生的效果是颜料具有许多间隙，通过这些间隙您​​可以看到纸张的表面。

There’ll be times when, for textural reasons, you’ll want some drybrush passages. These effects are created when a brush that’s fairly dry (not loaded with pigment) is rapidly skimmed across paper. The brush deposits pigment only on the ridges of the paper. The effect produced is that of pigment with many gaps through which you see the paper’s surface.

将画笔浸入您想要在纸上再现的任何色调值（图 J）。通过将大部分颜料负载倒在一张废纸上来清空它。沿任意方向操作刷子，使尖端变平并呈扇形。

Dip your brush into whatever tonal value you want to reproduce on the paper (Figure J). Empty it by discharging most of its load of pigment on a piece of scrap paper. Work the brush in any direction that will flatten and fan the point.

线性效应

Linear Effects

有时您还需要一些线性定义而不是渐变或平洗。只需改变压力，您就可以使用相同的 (#5) 画笔绘制最细的线条或最粗的笔画。可以用刷子的尖端画出细线；当您施加压力时，会出现较粗的线条。练习如图K所示的笔画。

There’ll also be times when you’ll want some linear definitions over a graded or flat wash. Simply by varying pressure, you can do the thinnest line or the thickest strokes with the same (#5) brush. Thin lines can be done with the tip of the brush; as you apply pressure thicker lines, will appear. Practice the strokes shown in Figure K.

我不能太强烈地敦促您练习图中演示的练习，直到您能够轻松且自发地完成它们为止。请不要胆怯。放自己走。放松并尽情玩耍。仅使用黑色和不同量的水就能获得各种效果，真是太神奇了。请记住，您可以将这些练习的技巧应用于后续章节中出现的静物和风景。彻底掌握它们，这样你在面对实际的主题时就不会摸索了。

I can’t urge you too strongly to practice the exercises demonstrated in the figures until you can do them with ease and spontaneity. Please don’t be timid. Let yourself go. Relax and splash away. It’s marvelous to see the various effects that you can get with only black and varying amounts of water. Remember that you can apply the techniques of these exercises to the still lifes and to the landscapes coming up in subsequent chapters. Master them thoroughly so you won’t be groping your way when confronted with actual subject matter.

图 A.不要仅仅因为无法获得推荐的所有设备而推迟开始使用这种奇妙的媒体。一个大的白盘子可以暂时代替屠夫的托盘。可以使用白色碟子代替倾斜和良好的调色板来混合各种色调。你真正需要的只是颜料、水、画笔和一些可以画画的东西。

Figure A. Don’t delay getting started with this marvelous medium simply because you can’t get all the equipment recommended. A large white plate can temporarily replace the butcher’s tray. Instead of the slant-and-well palette, white saucers can be used for mixing the various tones. All you really need is pigment, water, a brush, and something to draw on.

图 B.让白纸透过中心露出，首先应用最浅的灰色。接下来，应用两种深灰色，最后应用黑色，所有这些都围绕着白色矩形纸。这是该媒体的缺点之一。您无法通过淡化暗色调来获得清新、清脆、浅色的色调值。

Figure B. Leaving the white paper showing through the center, the lightest gray is applied first. Next, the two darker grays are applied, and finally the black, all of them skirting the white rectangle of paper. This is one of the medium’s shortcomings. You can’t achieve a fresh, crisp, light tonal value by lightening up a dark tone.

图 C.您可以从较暗的背景中“拾取”较亮的形状。当洗涤物仍湿时，使用湿刷，可以获得如图所示的一定程度的亮度。但你得到的色调只是浅灰色，而不是纯白色。

Figure C. You can “pick up” a lighter shape from a darker ground. With a damp brush, while the wash is still wet, you can get a degree of lightness as shown. But the tone you get is just lighter gray, never pure white.

图 D.您可以通过用揉捏的橡皮擦擦拭它来获得亮度稍浅的暗色调，就像我在顶部方块中所做的那样。然而，你永远无法回到真正清晰的白色，如圆形和三角形中所示，纸张表面保持不变。

Figure D. You can get a dark tone a bit lighter in value by rubbing it with a kneaded eraser, as I’ve done here in the top square. However, you can never get back to a really crisp white as seen in the circle and triangle, where the paper’s surface is left untouched.

图E。混合并匹配编号为 1、2、3、4 的四种灰色调。由于即使是浅色在调色板的井中也会显得很暗，因此请在一张废纸上测试您的色调。如果干燥时色调太浅，请添加颜料；如果太黑，加水。

Figure E. Mix and match the four gray tones numbered 1, 2, 3, 4. Since even the light tints appear dark in the well of the palette, test your tones on a piece of scrap paper. If a tone turns out too light when dry, add pigment; if it’s too dark, add water.

图 F.练习我在这里做的平洗。一旦你熟练掌握了它，它就会很快完成。当速度至关重要时，可以选择清洗介质。

Figure F. Practice the flat wash I’m doing here. It’s quickly done, once you gain proficiency in handling it. When speed is essential, wash is the medium to choose.

图G. “幸运的意外”发生在湿对湿混合的过程中，有时可以增强你的整个绘画效果。通过这种技术，您可以快速执行云、雨、薄雾、雾以及任何需要柔和边缘的内容。

Figure G. “Lucky accidents” happen in the process of wet-in-wet blending that sometimes can enhance your entire drawing. With this technique, you can quickly execute clouds, rain, mist, fog, and anything that requires soft edges.

图 H.如果想要柔和的边缘，表面必须是湿的或潮湿的。如果想要边缘清晰，表面必须干燥。当你的纸还湿的时候，尝试画几笔灰色调（左）。纸张干燥后尝试相同的笔画（右）。

Figure H. If you want a soft edge, the surface must be wet or damp. If you want a crisp edge, the surface must be dry. Try a few strokes of a gray tone while your paper is still wet (Left). Try the same strokes after the paper has dried (Right).

图 I.没有比使用渐变清洗更容易或更快的方法来对天空进行渐变色调或在圆柱形上渲染阴影。

Figure I. There’s no easier or faster way to do the graded tones of a sky or render the shading on a cylindrical form than by using a graded wash.

图 J.取一把相当干燥的半英寸刷子；在粗糙的水彩纸上快速运行。您会得到通过颜料显示的白纸间隙产生的闪闪发光的效果。这种效果称为干刷，非常适合描绘水或早晨场景的清新、明快的情绪。

Figure J. Take a half-inch brush that’s fairly dry; run it quickly over rough watercolor paper. You’ll get a sparkling effect produced by the gaps of white paper showing through the pigment. This effect, known as drybrush, is good for depicting water or the fresh, crisp mood of a morning scene.

图 K.线性效果可应用于平面或渐变洗涤。对于细纹，请使用刷头，施加很小的压力，就像我在这里所做的那样。粗线需要更大的压力。

Figure K. Linear effects can be applied over flat or graded washes. For fine lines use the point of the brush with very little pressure, as I’ve done here. The thick lines require more pressure.

项目 21

绘图带洗

PROJECT 21

Drawing with Wash

既然您现在已经熟悉了一些基本技术，那么让我们将您新获得的“清洗”知识运用到工作中。对于你的第一幅水墨画，你将首先准备一个“铅笔工作图”。这张工作图将被描画到插图板上，最后进行水洗渲染。这是“幕后”工作；公众永远看不到它。你所做的木炭画本身就是目的——准备装框和悬挂；这些工作图不是。它们的唯一目的是作为您用水洗或您想要的任何其他媒介完成绘画的指南。它们仅记录您想要转移的显着点，而将完成的绘图的微小细节保留在您正在使用的特定介质（在本例中为 Wash）中渲染。

Since you’re now familiar with some basic techniques let’s put your newly acquired knowledge of “wash” to work. For your first wash drawing, you’ll begin by preparing a “working drawing” in pencil. This working drawing will be traced onto illustration board and finally rendered in wash. This is “behind the scenes” work; the public never sees it. The charcoal drawings you did were an end in themselves—ready to be framed and hung; these working drawings are not. Their only purpose is to serve as a guide for your finished drawing in wash or any other medium you wish. They record only the salient points you’ll want to transfer, leaving the minute details of the finished drawing to be rendered in the particular medium you’re working in, in this case, wash.

施工图

Working Drawings

请按照我在该项目中所做的演示进行操作。出去捡起一根有几片叶子的树枝，然后把它带进屋里。将其设置在您想要的任何位置并开始您的“工作图”。您的绘图不必忠实于最后的细节。只需确定大的整体比例以及光影的建议即可。有关此类绘图的示例，请参见我的图 A和B。

Follow the demonstration I’ve done in this project. Go out and pick up a branch that has several leaves and bring it into the house. Set it up in any position you wish and begin your “working drawing.” Your drawing doesn’t have to be true to the last detail. Just establish the big, overall proportions and a suggestion of the lights and shadows. See my Figures A and B for examples of such drawings.

现实主义第一

Realism First

目前您关心的是创建对象的事实表示。之后，物体——无论是有生命的还是无生命的——都只会作为你的出发点。当你让你的敏感度和反应占据主导地位时，你会变得更加主观。你越是沉浸在冰冷、精于计算的正确比例的眼睛中，你就越会改变、夸张和扭曲，以便在视觉上表达你想要传达的情感。

At present you’re concerned with creating a factual representation of an object. Later, the object—animate or inanimate—will only serve as a point of departure for you. As you let your sensitivity and your reactions take over, you’ll become more subjective. The more you submerge the cold, calculating eye of correct proportions, the more you’ll change, exaggerate, and distort in order to express visually the emotions you want to convey.

但请记住，在您掌握了基础知识之后，这个阶段才会到来。只有当你知道为什么要根据自己的需要抛弃或改变某些绘画原则时，你的艺术才会超越事实，并有能力给观众留下深刻的印象。

But remember this stage comes later, after you have mastered the fundamentals. It’s only when you know why you throw away or bend certain drawing principles to your own needs that your art will rise above the factual and have the power to impress your spectator.

图 A。我根据实际的树枝绘制了这张图，同时记住图 B中所示的负形和圆柱形。我以传统的方式握着办公铅笔画细线，“在手掌下”画宽的阴影笔画。如果树枝上突出的裂缝和结正确，则可以在完成的图纸上清洗较小的分支。现在绘图已准备好追踪到插图板，因此请参阅枫树分支演示。

Figure A. I’ve made this drawing from the actual branch, keeping in mind the negative shapes and cylindrical forms diagrammed in Figure B. I hold the office pencil in the conventional manner for the thin lines and “under the palm” for the broad, shading strokes. If the prominent cracks and knots on the branch are correct, the smaller ramifications can be done with wash right on the finished drawing. The drawing is now ready to be traced to illustration board, so see the Maple Branch demonstration.

图 B.声音绘画的必要条件之一是准确观察构图中物体的正形和负形。如果您忘记了，正形状是物体本身，负形状是任何空白区域。由于树枝及其叶子的正面形状非常明显，因此我绘制了图表并“拉出了”负面形状（A、B 和 C），并将它们调成灰色，以便您可以清楚地看到它们。

Figure B. One of the requisites for sound drawing is the accurate observation of both the positive shapes and negative shapes of objects in a composition. In case you’ve forgotten, the positive shape is the object itself, and the negative shape is any area left vacant. Since the positive shapes of the branch and its leaves are so obvious, I’ve diagrammed and “pulled out” the negative shapes (A, B, and C) and toned them gray so you can see them clearly.

枫树枝，步骤1：当你的工作图正确时，用石墨将其背面涂黑，然后将大形状和大细节转移到11“ × 14”插图板上。

Maple Branch, Step 1: When your working drawing is correct, blacken its back with graphite, then transfer the big shapes and the large details onto an 11″ × 14″ illustration board.

Maple Branch，步骤 2：准备四种灰色调（如项目 20中所示）。用最轻的值给你的#5或#7刷子充电，然后从树枝和叶子的顶部到底部进行清洗。确保白色细节保持不变。

Maple Branch, Step 2: Prepare four tones of gray (as in Project 20). Charge your #5 or #7 brush with the lightest value and bring the wash down from top to bottom of branch and leaf. Make sure white details are left untouched.

枫树枝，第 3 步：当第一次清洗干燥后，开始建模。用#7刷子用清水沿着大树枝的中心刷；如果洗涤物完全干燥，则不会影响平洗。在水干之前，进行分级清洗，使树枝呈圆柱形。对于软边缘，请在潮湿的表面上工作；对于硬边，请在干燥的表面上进行操作。

Maple Branch, Step 3: When this first wash is dry, begin the modeling. Run the #7 brush with clear water down the center of your big branch; it won’t disturb the flat wash if the wash is completely dry. Before the water drys, apply the graded washes that give the branch its cylindrical form. For soft edges, work on a damp surface; for hard edges, work on a dry surface.

Maple Branch，第 4 步：处理整个绘图。当你等待一个部分干燥时，继续处理另一部分，直到完成最微小的细节，就像我在这里所做的那样。顺便说一句，我相信您已经注意到较小的叶子从工作图中的原始位置向下移动了。当我追踪大形状时，我注意到它位于树枝和大叶子之间的中心位置。由于负形应该和正形一样多样且有趣，所以我决定移动它。

Maple Branch, Step 4: Work over the whole drawing. While you’re waiting for one part to dry, keep working on another until the most minute details are finished, as I’ve done here. Incidentally, I’m sure you’ve noticed that the smaller leaf was shifted down from its original position in the working drawing. When I was tracing the big shapes, I noticed that it was just too centrally located between the twig and the big leaf. Since the negative shapes should be as varied and interesting as the positive shapes, I decided to move it.

项目

22A静物画中洗

PROJECT 22

A Still Life in Wash

当我们专注于处理某种特定媒介时，我会感到遗憾的一件事是你忘记了我们开始时的基本原理。正确的绘图是任何媒介中优秀作品的基础。始终注意作为现实对象基础的基本几何形式。

The one thing I would deplore as we get absorbed in the handling of a particular medium is for you to forget the basic fundamentals with which we started. Correct drawing is the foundation of a good piece of work in any medium. Always be aware of the underlying geometric forms that are the basis of your realistic objects.

安排和灯光

Arranging and Lighting

我希望你有一些海滩旅行带回来的贝壳。但如果你不这样做，那就用杯子、碟子和牛奶壶。它们在使用渐变清洗进行渲染时会带来同样的问题。

I hope you have some shells that you’ve brought back from your excursions to the beach. But if you don’t, then use a cup and saucer and a milk jug. They’ll pose the same problems in rendering with graded washes.

我把贝壳的排列方式和你在这里看到的完全一样。我将它们固定在 11" × 14" 白色插图板上，这样当我将插图板以大约 30° 角倾斜到一堆书时，它们就不会移动。然后，我从几个方向向它们投射聚光灯，直到确定光线的最佳方向。我选择了左上角，因为它给了我最好的形式和最好的投射阴影。它还最大限度地展现了贝壳的纹理。

I arranged the shells exactly as you see them here. I taped them in position on 11″ × 14″ white illustration board so that they wouldn’t shift as I reclined the board at about a 30° angle against a stack of books. Then, I threw a spotlight on them from several directions until I decided on the best direction for the light. I chose the upper left, because it gave me the best forms and the best cast shadows. It also brought out the texture of the shells to the best advantage.

使用分级洗涤

Using a Graded Wash

现在让我们继续这幅静物画的主要目的——分级洗涤的处理。本次演示中使用的材料与绘制树枝的材料相同。我为你的第一幅水洗画选择了树枝和树叶，因为这个主题不需要完美控制你的媒介。如果某些东西有点太锐利或太软，或者可能有点太亮或太暗，我确信它不会对拍摄对象的外观产生灾难性的影响。

Now let’s continue with the main purpose of this still life—the handling of a graded wash. The materials used in this demonstration will be the same as those used for the wash drawing of the branch. I chose a branch and leaves for your first drawing in wash because that subject didn’t demand perfect control of your medium. If something came off a bit too sharp or too soft—or perhaps a bit too light or too dark—I’m sure it didn’t disastrously affect the appearance of your subject.

现在您已经更熟悉这种媒介了，我希望您渲染我在演示中绘制的贝壳。这是一种主要采用从白色到灰色到黑色的弯曲、渐变水洗的练习。请注意两个贝壳主体上的阴影：白色（纸张本身）表示明亮区域，渐变水洗表示阴影区域，灰色表示贝壳上的反射光。

Now that you’re better acquainted with the medium, I’d like you to render the shells I’ve drawn in the demonstration. It’s an exercise mostly in curved, graded washes from white to gray to black. Notice the shading on the body of both shells: white (the paper itself) for the light areas, graded wash for the shadow areas, and gray for the reflected lights on the shells.

消除铅笔线

Eliminating Pencil Lines

如果处理中的某些段落有点令人费解，请再次检查您为项目 20所做的练习；您需要的有关技术的一切都在那里。再多说一句建议。当色调变淡时，请确保所描画的特定区域是浅色的。浅色洗涤值周围的深色铅笔线是最令人不愉快的。如果插图板上的描迹必须针对这些区域变亮，请拿起揉好的橡皮擦并用它敲击铅笔线，直到它足够可见以作为指导。施工图示例请参见图A和B。

If certain passages in the handling are a bit puzzling, check again the exercises you did for Project 20; everything you require about technique is there. Just one more word of advice. When the tone is going to be light, be sure the traced drawing is light in that particular area. A dark pencil line around a light wash value is most unpleasant. If the tracing on the illustration board has to be lightened for just such areas, take the kneaded eraser and tap the pencil line with it until it’s just visible enough to serve as a guide. See Figures A and B for examples of working drawings.

在图 A中，我绘制了由圆锥体、球体和圆柱体组成的壳的基本结构。您可以首先建立基本形状，然后修改其严格的几何轮廓以符合您面前的实际物体，从而开始绘画。或者，一开始，您可以绘制实际物体，同时牢记（和“感觉”）其形式的坚固性。

In Figure A, I’ve diagrammed the underlying structure of the shells consisting of the cone, the sphere, and the cylinder. You can begin your drawing by establishing the basic forms first and then modifying their rigidly geometric contours to conform with actual objects before you. Or, at the outset, you can draw the actual objects, keeping in mind (and “feeling”) the solidity of their forms.

准备音

Preparing Tone

在开始水洗渲染之前，请准备足够的四种色调，以便在完成工作之前不会耗尽其中任何一种。最好留下一些颜料，而不是在忙于渲染时开始混合。

Before you begin your rendering in wash, prepare enough of your four tones so that you won’t exhaust any of them before you’re finished with the job. It’s better to have some pigment left over than to start mixing while you’re busily engaged in the rendering.

图 A。我将构成外壳结构的基本几何形式放在外壳本身旁边，以便您可以清楚地看到发生的修改。半个球体代表壳1的上部；整个球体都用于它的身体。圆锥体包括其尖端。圆柱体的剖面在外壳 2 的顶部最为明显。外壳 2 的主体尽管有起伏，但显然是基于圆锥体的。

Figure A. I’ve placed the basic geometric forms that comprise the structure of the shells alongside the shells, themselves, so that you can clearly see the modifications that occur. Half a sphere represents the upper part of shell 1; the entire sphere is used for its body. The cone comprises its tip. Sections of the cylinder couldn’t be more evident than at the top of shell 2. The body of shell 2, in spite of its undulations, is clearly based on the cone.

图 B。在这里，我遵循与绘制分支相同的过程。首先，我用办公室铅笔画了一条线，以获得一个贝壳与另一个贝壳的正确比例和关系。然后，将铅笔握在“手掌下”，我按以下顺序对贝壳进行建模：首先，我渲染阴影，观察球形、圆锥形和圆柱形形状上的柔和边缘。然后我处理投射阴影以更好地判断反射光的值。接下来是阴影上较暗的“旋转边缘”。最后，我用铅笔的一侧使某些区域的反射光变暗，或者用揉捏的橡皮擦敲击使它们变亮。请观看下面的演示，了解我如何渲染水洗的贝壳。

Figure B. Here, I follow the same procedure as in the drawing of the branch. First, I do a line drawing with the office pencil to get the correct proportions and relationships of one shell to the other. Then, holding the pencil “under the palm,” I model the shells in this order: first, I render the shadows, watching their soft edges on the spherical, conical, and cylindrical forms. Then I work on the cast shadows to better judge the value of the reflected lights. The darker “turning edge” over the shadows comes next. Finally, I darken the reflected lights in some areas with the side of the pencil, or lighten them by tapping with the kneaded eraser. Look at the demonstration that follows to see how I render the shells in wash.

贝壳，第 1 步：描绘您的工作图（见图B）——无论它是贝壳、杯子还是水壶——就像我在这里所做的那样。只需保留大而重要的形状，留下小细节进行渲染即可。当大的划分正确时，细分就不可避免地落在适当的位置。

Shells, Step 1: Trace your working drawing (see Figure B)—whether it happens to be shells, or cups, or jugs—as I’ve done here. Just carry over the big, important shapes, leaving the small details for the rendering in wash. When the big divisions are correct, the subdivisions can’t help but fall in their proper place.

贝壳，第 2 步：在这里，我对整个绘图应用了初步的浅色清洗（除了我想要白色的地方）。我用刷子和清水润湿边缘柔和的阴影的轮廓。如果您在湿润轮廓旁边应用光值，颜料将扩散到水分中，从而产生柔和的边缘。我将阴影缩小到所需的宽度。冲洗刷子后，我在另一个区域开始相同的程序。

Shells, Step 2: Here, I’ve applied preliminary light washes to the entire drawing (except where I want white). With a brush and clear water I dampen the contour of a soft-edged shadow. If you apply the light values beside the dampened contour, the pigment will spread into the moisture producing a soft edge. I bring the shadow down to its required width. After rinsing my brush, I start the same procedure in another area.

贝壳，第 3 步：我遵循与分支最后阶段相同的程序：将越来越深的水洗涂在另一个顶部。我会确保前一次清洗完全干燥，然后再进行下一次清洗。如果在尝试将阴影打造成形状时，您最终得到的值比您预期的要暗，请让它干燥，然后开始用揉捏的橡皮擦擦拭色调的费力过程。

Shells, Step 3: I follow the same procedure as in the final stages of the branch: darker and darker washes are applied one on top of the other. I take care that the previous wash is completely dry before applying the succeeding one. If, in trying to whip a shadow into shape, you end up with a value darker than you intended, let it dry and then start the laborious process of rubbing the tone with a kneaded eraser.

贝壳，第 4 步：第 2 步的水洗边缘在亮色区域附近变得柔和。当这些柔软的边缘干燥时，我再次用清水润湿它们，并通过在画笔中添加颜料来涂抹较暗的“旋转边缘”。然后，我冲洗刷子，将其浸入清水中，并在反射光旁边以柔和的“旋转边缘”完成。对于投射的阴影，我只在边缘柔软的地方运行刷子，加入清水。较小外壳上的微弱条纹和较大外壳上的微小波纹（属于小细节）自然应该留到最后。

Shells, Step 4: The edges of the washes of Step 2 become soft near the light areas. When these soft edges dry, I dampen them again with clear water and apply the darker “turning edges” by adding pigment to my brush. Then, I rinse my brush, dip it into clear water, and finish off with a soft “turning edge” next to the reflected lights. For the cast shadows, I run my brush, loaded with clear water, only where the edges are soft. The faint striping on the smaller shell and the tiny corrugations on the larger one—being small details—should be left until the last, naturally.

项目 23

户外（带清洗）

PROJECT 23

Outdoors with Wash

现在，让我们到户外尝试我们的新媒体。我在这个项目的演示中使用的程序是当场制作木炭“粗略”和更详细的铅笔画。然后，回到工作室，我对这个主题进行了水洗处理。当然，您也可以当场使用清洗，但您必须随身携带所有合适的设备。

Now, let’s go outdoors and try our new medium. The procedure I’ve used in the demonstrations in this project is to make both a charcoal “rough” and a more detailed pencil drawing on the spot. Then, back at the studio, I’ve rendered the subject in wash. Of course, you can use wash right on the spot as well, but you must have all the right equipment along with you.

运输您的材料

Transporting Your Materials

当您在户外绘画时，携带材料最方便的方法是将每种特定介质所需的材料放在单独的盒子中。例如，给一盒木炭贴上标签，并将该特定介质所需的所有物品放入其中。这样你就不用在铅笔中寻找一块海绵，或者在颜料中寻找一根木炭了；我讨厌出去画画时浪费时间。我想你会喜欢这种有条不紊的方法。

When you draw outdoors, the most convenient way of carrying materials is to put the supplies required for each particular medium in individual boxes. For example, label one box charcoal and put everything in it that you’ll need for that particular medium. This saves you the bother of looking for a piece of sponge among the pencils, or for a stick of charcoal among the paints; I hate to waste time when I’m out sketching. I think you’ll like this methodical approach.

但不要抢彼得来付钱给保罗。在用木炭素描时，如果您发现盒子里没有树桩，请记下以便在返回时将其放入。我唯一不放在盒子里的东西是一个折叠凳和一个20英寸×26英寸的画板，当我素描时，我把它们放在膝盖上。这些我只是留在后备箱里。其他的东西都是单独装箱的。

But don’t rob Peter to pay Paul. When sketching in charcoal, if you find that there are no stumps in the box, make a note to put them in on your return. The only things I don’t put in boxes are a folding stool and a 20″ × 26″ drawing board that I hold on my knees when I sketch. These I just leave in the trunk. Everything else is boxed individually.

让你的媒介适合你的主题

Suiting Your Medium to Your Subject

当我看到您在该项目演示中看到的谷仓门时，我知道它们值得的不仅仅是一个简短的草图。首先，我做了一个木炭草图（图A）只是作为初步步骤。然后，我使用工作图（在木炭草图上）来更准确地确定较小的细节。

When I came upon the barn doors that you see in this project’s demonstration, I knew that they deserved more than a brief sketch. First, I did a charcoal sketch (Figure A) only as a preliminary step. Then, I used a working drawing (over the charcoal sketch) to pin down more accurately the smaller details.

我把两幅画带回工作室，带着我用木炭绘制的色调方案和用铅笔精确绘制的线条，我开始清洗。我为这幅画选择了水洗，因为我在脑海中想象了用干刷纹理覆盖的门上的分级水洗。整个乐团对我说“洗”。这就是我说某个主题迫切需要在特定媒介中完成时的意思。例如，并不是说它不能以不透明的方式完成，但我觉得水洗具有最好地完成这项特定工作的必要特征。

I took both drawings back to the studio and, armed with the tonal scheme I’d laid in with charcoal and the accurate line drawing in pencil, I started the wash. I chose wash for this drawing because I pictured in my mind the graded wash on the doors covered with a drybrush texture. The entire ensemble said “wash” to me. This is what I mean when I say that a certain subject will cry out to be done in a particular medium. Not that it couldn’t have been done in opaque, for example, but I felt that wash had the necessary characteristics to do this particular job best.

图A。我之前提到过，大自然很难给你一幅完美的图画。嗯，这是个例外；我所要做的就是确定要包含多少场景，以及从这张粗略的木炭草图中省略多少内容。

Figure A. I mentioned before that nature hardly ever gives you a perfect picture. Well, this is the exception; all I had to do was to determine how much of the scene to include, and how much to leave out of this rough charcoal sketch.

图B。直到我准备好渲染它时，我才注意到我在这里画的怪诞“怪物”！粗糙的树皮呈现在平坦的水洗上，如较小的草图所示。

Figure B. It wasn’t until I was ready to render it in wash that I noticed the grotesque “monster” I’d drawn here! The rough bark was rendered over the flat wash, as demonstrated in the smaller sketch.

谷仓门，第 1 步：从图 A中看到的木炭毛坯中，我画了一张铅笔图来确定较小的细节。然后我把铅笔画描到了插图板上。接下来，我先涂上浅色、平坦的水洗，然后再涂上深色、渐变的水洗，如下图所示。

Barn Doors, Step 1: From the charcoal rough seen in Figure A, I’ve done a pencil drawing to pin down the smaller details. Then I’ve traced the pencil drawing onto illustration board. Next, I lay in a light, flat wash followed by a darker, graded one which you see here.

谷仓门，第 2 步：当下面的两层水洗干后，我将铅笔画放回它们上面，并在谷仓门和地面上描出栅栏及其阴影。前景中的草纹理是用细海绵完成的。草地上的亮点和门的装饰是白色不透明的。

Barn Doors, Step 2: After the two underlying washes are dry, I place the pencil drawing back over them and trace the fence and its shadow on the barn doors and the ground. The grass texture in the foreground is done with a fine sponge. The highlights on the grass and the door’s trim are white opaque.

谷仓门，第 3 步：我在工作室完成了最后的绘图。研究你在户外画的任何草图，看看它是否值得在相同或不同的媒介中进一步发展。注意谷仓门的木纹纹理。我用干刷子在分级水洗上充分“扇形”地实现了这种纹理。还有一点：您可以自由地超出图片的边界，然后用不透明的白色修剪它们。

Barn Doors, Step 3: I’ve done this final drawing in the studio. Study whatever you sketch outdoors to see if it deserves further development in the same or a different medium. Notice the wood grain texture of the barn doors. I’ve achieved this texture with a dry brush that was well “fanned” over the graded wash. One more point: you can work freely past the borders of your picture and then trim them back with opaque white.

农舍窗户，第 1 步：这是另一幅图画，最初是当场绘制的木炭草图。这是近年来非常流行的一种特殊类型的“景观”。这被称为“特写”。我在这里遵循了与谷仓门相同的程序。我在插图板上画了一幅铅笔画。然后，我通过放置您在此处看到的平面灰色水洗来开始渲染。请注意我是如何将窗帘纸保持原样的。

Farmhouse Window, Step 1: Here’s another drawing that began as a charcoal sketch done on the spot. It’s a special type of “landscape” that’s become very popular in recent years. It’s known as a “closeup.” I’ve followed the same procedure here that I’ve used with the barn doors. I trace a pencil drawing on to illustration board. Then, I begin the rendering by laying in a flat gray wash that you see here. Notice how I’ve left the paper untouched for the curtains.

农舍窗户，第 2 步：这是成品图。我已经连续进行了更深的洗涤以达到我的阴影。饱经风霜的隔板的纹理包含一些干刷作品。破碎的腻子条最后涂上白色不透明的腻子。

Farmhouse Window, Step 2: Here’s the finished drawing. I’ve put down successively darker washes to achieve my shadows. The texture of the weatherbeaten clapboard contains some drybrush work. The broken strips of putty are put in last with white opaque.

项目24

不透明技巧

PROJECT 24

Opaque Techniques

我提到过我希望你尝试尽可能多的媒体。这是找出最适合您气质的唯一方法。

I mentioned that I’d like you to try as many media as possible. It’s the only way to find out which one best suits your temperament.

不透明水彩是我最喜欢的媒介。以至于我什至专门写了一本书专门讨论它的处理（《不透明水彩绘画》，Watson-Guptill Publications，1969）。然而，有很长一段时间我的作品只使用墨水。事实上，所有的媒体都非常好用。你掌握的越多，陷入困境的风险就越小。当你开始觉得其中一种太舒服的时候，我建议你换成另一种，以避免滑向纯粹的圆滑和精湛的可能性。

Opaque watercolor is my favorite medium. So much so that I even wrote a book exclusively devoted to its handling (Painting in Opaque Watercolor, Watson-Guptill Publications, 1969). However, there have been long stretches when I used nothing but inks in my work. Actually all the media are marvelous to handle; the more of them you master, the less risk there’ll be of getting into a rut. The moment you begin to feel too comfortable in one, I’d suggest you change to another to avoid the possibility of sliding into mere slickness and virtuosity.

不透明的特性

Characteristics of Opaque

正如您已经发现的，水洗是一种自发且闪闪发光的介质。它非常适合平坦的通道以及平滑的分级洗涤。如果您愿意，您可以使用水洗准确地呈现最微小的细节。它也是湿碰湿工作时“快乐事故”的媒介。当时间紧迫时，几乎没有比这更快的涂抹颜料的方法了。

As you’ve already discovered, wash is a spontaneous and sparkling medium. It lends itself perfectly to flat passages, as well as to smoothly graded washes. If you’re so inclined, you can accurately render the minutest details with wash. It’s also the medium for “happy accidents” when working wet-in-wet; when pressed for time, there’s hardly a faster way of applying pigment.

然而，当一个主题的白色细节如此复杂，以至于围绕细丝和金银细丝等工作变得非常痛苦的苦差事时，那么就需要不透明。不透明水彩画（有时称为水粉画）最适合在深色背景上渲染浅色图案。诸如精致的树枝和细枝与深色常青树的对比、蕾丝窗帘与深色阴影的对比、一群海鸥与暴风雨天空的对比等主题，事实上，任何需要用亮色代替深色的复杂表达都适合用不透明渲染。

However, when the white details of a subject are so intricate that it becomes painful drudgery to work your way around, say, filaments and filigree, then opaque is needed. Opaque watercolor (sometimes called gouache) is at best when rendering light traceries over a dark ground. Such subjects as delicate branches and twigs against a dark evergreen, a lace curtain against a dark shade, a flock of gulls against a stormy sky, in fact, any complex articulation that’s to be light over dark is suitable for rendering in opaque.

颜料

Pigments

您将需要用于绘画的同一管伽马黑和一管伽马白（图 A）。通过这两个极值（最暗和最亮），您可以通过改变其中一个的量来获得介于两者之间的任何灰色。请注意水洗和不透明之间的区别。水洗仅需要水即可产生光值，而不透明则需要白色颜料来产生或减轻光值（图 B）。

You’ll need the same tube of Gamma Black that you used for the wash drawings, and a tube of Gamma White (Figure A). With these two extreme values—the darkest and the lightest—you can get any of the grays in between by varying the amounts of one with the other. Notice this distinction between wash and opaque. Wash requires only water to create a light value, while opaque requires white pigment to make or lighten a value (Figure B).

您还可以在管子或罐子中获得一组六种预混合的灰色调 (Grumbacher)（图 C）。F. Weber Co. 还生产了一套名为“Permogray”的五种音色。它们与 Permoblack 和 Permowhite 一起构成了最合适的价值范围。

You can also get a set of six ready-mixed gray tones (Grumbacher) in tubes or jars (Figure C). There’s also a set of five tones manufactured by F. Weber Co. called “Permogray.” Together with Permoblack and Permowhite, these also form a most adequate value range.

画笔和绘图表面

Brushes and Drawing Surfaces

您只需添加到已购买的用于清洗处理的刷子库存即可。除了它们之外，您还需要 20 号红貂毛亮色、5 号鬃毛亮色和 5 号平鬃毛。表面对于不透明水彩可以与水洗相同。您可以使用任何具有您自己喜好的表面（光滑、中等或粗糙）的插图板。对于本项目中的练习，最便宜的单厚度插图板就足够了。事实上，甚至安装板或展示卡板也可以。

You can simply add to the stock of brushes you’ve already purchased for the handling of wash. In addition to them, you’ll need a red sable bright #20, bristle bright #5, and a bristle flat #5. The surface for opaque watercolor can be the same as that for wash. You can use any illustration board with a surface (smooth, medium, or rough) of your own preference. For the exercises in this project, the cheapest, single thickness illustration board will be adequate. In fact, even mounting board or showcard board will do.

配件

Accessories

需要两块海绵，细的和粗的。它们可以是天然的或合成的。A画刀也很有用。最后，你需要一个水碗、抹布、一个屠夫托盘以及用于绘制工作图的铅笔和纸。您可能不会在练习中使用所有这些材料，但您很快就会需要它们来绘制静物和风景画。

Two pieces of sponge, fine and coarse, will be needed. They can be either natural or synthetic. A painting knife will also be useful. Finally you’ll need a water bowl, rag, a butcher’s tray, and pencils and paper for the working drawing. You may not use all of these materials in the exercises, but you’ll need them for the still life and landscape drawings coming up shortly.

本项目图中提供的练习将演示如何在暗值上应用亮值。此过程为您提供了巨大的优势，可以将元素放置在具有中间色调值的平面形状中，在这些元素上不仅可以渲染阴影，还可以渲染灯光（图 D）。

The exercises presented in the figures of this project will demonstrate how to apply a light value over a dark one. This procedure gives you the tremendous advantage of laying in the elements in flat shapes with middle tonal values upon which not only the shadows but also the lights can be rendered (Figure D).

干刷混合

Drybrush Blending

不透明可以通过两种方式混合：“干刷”边缘和加入湿色调。我们先拿干刷（图E）。用尖头水彩笔蘸取中灰色。将刷子“清空”在一张废纸上时将其压平。然后，仅使用刷子的尖端快速移动，向东北方向轻轻扫过木板的表面。将图画颠倒过来并重复笔画。确保笔触扫向亮区或扫向较浅的色调。您可以将笔划扫过形状的轮廓，然后用白色或相邻的值进行修剪。

Opaque can be blended in two ways: by “drybrushing” an edge and by joining wet tones. Let’s take the drybrush first (Figure E). Dip into a medium gray with a pointed watercolor brush. Flatten the brush as you “empty” it on a piece of scrap paper. Then, with quick movements using only the tip of the brush, sweep the surface of the board lightly in a northeasterly direction. Turn the drawing upside-down and repeat the strokes. Be sure that the strokes sweep toward the light area or toward a lighter tone. You can sweep the strokes past the contour of a shape and then trim back with white or with the adjoining value.

然而，永远不要忘记油漆的稠度必须正确。您的颜料必须足够厚以覆盖纸张或下面的色调。如果太薄，就无法覆盖表面；如果太厚，就会变得难以管理。

However, never forget that the consistency of the paint must be correct. Your pigment must be just thick enough to cover the paper or the tone underneath. If it’s too thin it won’t cover the surface; if it’s too thick it becomes unmanageable.

湿法混合

Wet Blending

顾名思义，湿式混合意味着在前一个值仍然湿润时加入一个值。图 F中的分级带是通过连接四个值来完成的，每个值稍微重叠。它们稍微超出了顶部和底部边缘，但随后我用白色不透明材料修剪了它们，就像我在图 E中对圆柱体的底部所做的那样。

As the term implies, wet blending means joining a value while the preceding one is still wet. The graded band in Figure F was done by joining the four values, slightly overlapping one after the other. They went a bit past the top and bottom edges but then I trimmed them with white opaque, as I did the bottom of the cylinder in Figure E.

在球体上练习这两种类型的混合，就像我在图 G中所做的那样。两种类型的混合都会产生渐变的色调图案。然而，可以在湿混带的顶部产生线性图案（图H）。

Practice both types of blending on a sphere, as I’ve done in Figure G. Both types of blending produce gradated tonal patterns. However, linear patterns can be produced on top of a wet-blended band (Figure H).

致力于工匠精神

Working Toward Craftsmanship

请记住，这些练习本身并不是目的，而只是实现在给定介质中渲染绘图的目标的手段。学习轻松处理任何媒介的目的是让你专注于作为艺术家要表达的内容，而不是思考如何表达。

Remember that these exercises aren’t an end in themselves, but merely the means toward your goal of rendering a drawing in a given medium. The purpose of learning to handle any medium with ease is to let you concentrate on what you have to say as an artist, and to free you from thinking about how to say it.

图 A.除了托盘和水碗之外，此处所示的设备可以添加到您已经购买的用于清洗工作的工具中。海绵被撕成易于处理的碎片。在这种尺寸下，它们可用于纹理段落和混合湿湿色调。

Figure A. With the exception of the tray and the water bowl, the equipment pictured here can be added to the tools you’ve already acquired for working in wash. The sponges are torn off into manageable pieces. At this size they can be used for textural passages and for blending wet-in-wet tones.

图 B.这是不透明的伟大优点：可以将浅色值绘制在深色值上。这里首先应用了暗色调。然后将较浅的颜色（一直到白色）涂在上面。

Figure B. Here’s the great virtue of opaque: a light value can be painted over a dark one. The dark tones here were applied first. Then the lighter ones—all the way up to white—were painted on top.

图 C.这些是六个值 - 四种灰色加上黑色和白色 - 可以购买已准备好的颜色。如果您在工作时需要更多任何值，您只需挤压含有这些颜料的管子即可。

Figure C. These are the six values—four grays plus black and white—that can be purchased already prepared. Should you need more of any of the values as you work, all you have to do with these pigments is to squeeze the tube containing that.

图 D.在清洗时，通过锯齿形画笔来降低色调的水坑，从而创建平坦的色调值。在不透明的情况下，您可以先绘制边框，然后填充形状。向各个方向涂抹颜料（如箭头所示），使其均匀、平滑地涂抹。

Figure D. When working in wash the puddle of tone is brought down by zigzaging the brush, creating a flat tonal value. In opaque you can paint the borders first and then fill in the shape. Work the pigment in all directions (as the arrows indicate) to spread it evenly and smoothly.

图 E。这是您可以使用不透明进行的一种混合类型。这里展示的是边缘的干刷。确保你的色调始终扫向明亮的区域。

Figure E. Here’s one type of blending that you can do with opaque. Demonstrated here is the drybrushing of an edge. Be sure that your tones always sweep toward the light area.

图 F.通过湿法混合，一个值与另一个值结合在一起，同时两个值仍然是湿的。色调层次是通过重叠色调值产生的。

Figure F. With wet blending, one value is joined to another while both values are still wet. The tonal gradation is produced by overlapping the tonal values.

图 G.对于干刷方法，在中间值处绘制一个扁平圆盘，如视图 1 所示。您可以使用指南针或徒手绘制。当它干燥时，将阴影扫在其上，视图 2。然后将高光放在顶部，如视图 3 所示。当浅灰色干燥时，将小白点干刷在其上。对于右侧的湿混合球体，从白点开始，然后在其旁边刷浅灰色。添加深灰色，直到达到阴影的轮廓。如果您觉得更容易的话，您也可以从暗影处向亮处进行处理。当你将一个色调稍微重叠到另一个色调时，保持色调湿润。

Figure G. For the drybrush approach, paint a flat disc in a middle value as in view 1. You can use a compass or do it freehand. When it drys, sweep the shadow over it, view 2. Then place the highlight at the top, seen in view 3. When the light gray is dry, drybrush the small white spot over it. For the wet-blended sphere on the right, begin with the white spot and then brush the light gray next to it. Add the darker grays until you get to the contour of the shadow. You can also work from the dark shadow toward the light spot if this is easier for you. Keep the tones wet as you overlap one slightly into the other.

图 H。对于本练习，我希望您在如图 F所示的带上使用湿混合。干燥后，拿起 3 号水彩笔，在托盘或废纸上画出一点。应用线性图案；从左侧的白色开始，到暗侧的中灰色结束。

Figure H. For this exercise I’d like you to use wet-blending on a band like the one in Figure F. When dry, take your #3 watercolor brush and work it to a point on your tray or scrap paper. Apply the linear pattern; begin with white at the left and end with a medium gray at the dark side.

图一。许多学生小心翼翼地画到色调的边缘，总是在一个色调和另一个色调之间留下白色（纸）边缘。为了避免这种情况，我希望你练习用铅笔绘制一个矩形，与一个圆柱体重叠，然后再与另一个矩形重叠。这个想法是稍微超出边缘进行绘制，如图所示。然后，干燥后，通过绘制回其原始轮廓来恢复重叠物体的形状。

Figure I. Many students gingerly paint up to an edge of a tone, invariably leaving a white (paper) margin between one tone and another. To avoid this, I’d like you to practice drawing a rectangle in pencil overlapped by a cylinder that is, in turn, overlapped by another rectangle. The idea is to paint slightly past the edge, as shown. Then when dry, regain the shape of the overlapped object by painting back to its original contour.

项目 25

不透明静物画

PROJECT 25

Still Lifes in Opaque

现在让我们将您在上一个项目中学到的不透明技术付诸实践。这里展示的两幅静物画将让您有机会彻底探索这种媒介，它允许您在中间色调上绘制深色和浅色。

Now let’s put the opaque techniques that you learned in the last project to work. The two still lifes demonstrated here will give you a chance to thoroughly explore this medium which allows you to paint both darks and lights on top of a middle tone.

以开始水洗研究的方式开始你的不透明静物画——用一张工作图。我为你的第一个学习选择了一幅蔬菜静物画。与清洗后的树枝一样，如果形状或细节略有偏差，它不会真正扭曲蔬菜的外观。第二张静物画需要更多的控制。

Begin your opaque still lifes the way you’ve begun your wash studies—with a working drawing. I chose a vegetable still life for your first study. As with the branch done in wash, if a shape or detail is slightly off it won’t really distort the appearance of the vegetables. The second still life will require more control.

观察面前物体的形状以及光影图案如何落下。除非你想传达一种孤独和孤立的感觉，否则最好让你的元素主宰图片的空间，并将背景降到次要位置。

Observe the form of the objects before you and how the light and shadow patterns fall. Unless you want to convey a sense of loneliness and isolation, it’s better to let your elements dominate the picture’s space and relegate the background to a secondary position.

建立大形状

Establishing the Large Shapes

图 A 显示生菜和番茄的头部，尽管有各种变化，仍然是基于球体的。我不断重申这一点是因为我希望你了解物体的体积和体积；物体占据一定的空间。当你画生菜头时，“感觉”表面的曲率。观察叶子如何紧贴轮廓，即使它们扭曲和卷曲。

Figure A shows that the head of lettuce and the tomato, with all their variations, are still based on the sphere. I keep reiterating this because I want you to be aware of the bulk and volume of objects; objects occupy a given space. As you draw the head of lettuce, “feel” the curvature of the surface. Observe how the leaves cling to that contour, even if they twist and curl.

在这里，我再次建议您专注于主要形状，就像我在工作图（图 A）中所做的那样，并将微小的细节留给最终渲染。在稍后的阶段，您可以直接在插图板上开始绘画。然而，现在最好使用你的广告艺术板，然后将你的画描到插图板上，就像你在水洗时所做的那样。

Here, again, I suggest you concentrate on the main shapes, as I did in my working drawing (Figure A) and leave the minute details for the final rendering. At a later stage you can begin your drawing right on the illustration board. However, for now it would be better to use your Ad Art pad and then trace your drawing onto the illustration board, as you did when working in wash.

平衡纹理

Balancing Textures

如果在这个特定时间无法获得生菜和西红柿，那就寻找其他蔬菜，甚至水果。然而，请留意质地品质，看看一种水果的质地与另一种水果的质地相辅相成。请注意生菜“忙碌”的表面如何与番茄“安静”和光滑的质地相平衡。两个质地光滑的水果或两个“紧张”的水果会变得有点单调。

If there’s no way of getting a head of lettuce and a tomato at this particular time, then find other vegetables, or even fruits. Keep an eye, however, on the textural qualities and see that one fruit’s texture complements the other. Notice how the “busy” surface of the lettuce is balanced by the “quiet” and smooth texture of the tomato. Two smooth textured fruits or two “jittery” ones would get a bit monotonous.

使用转印纸

Using Transfer Paper

拿起你的工作图，再次将其粘贴到插图板的顶部。用黑色蜡笔、石墨棒或任何软铅笔将一张广告艺术垫涂黑，准备一张转印纸。然后用一块棉布或浸有橡胶水泥稀释剂或苯的纸巾擦拭纸。将转印纸滑到图画下方，然后用硬铅笔描出轮廓。

Take your working drawing and again tape it to the top of your illustration board. Prepare a transfer paper by blackening a sheet of your Ad Art pad with black pastel, a graphite stick, or any soft pencil. Then rub the paper with a piece of cotton or a tissue saturated with rubber cement thinner or benzene. Slip the transfer paper under the drawing and trace it with a hard pencil.

转印纸可以在许多图纸下反复使用。如果您的工作规模较大，您所要做的就是在描画时将转印纸从一个部分移至另一部分。

Transfer paper can be used over and over again under many drawings. If you work in a large scale, all you have to do is shift the transfer paper from one section to another as you trace.

油漆一致性

Paint Consistency

我已经提到过正确的不透明的稠度应该足够厚以覆盖插图板或任何先前的色调。正如您在做练习时发现的那样，来自制造商的不透明水彩画太厚，不易操作，必须稀释。一旦覆盖了纸张，任何细节和建模都可以用更薄的油漆完成。

I’ve mentioned that the correct consistency of opaque should be just thick enough to cover the illustration board or any previous tone. As you discovered when doing the exercises, opaque watercolor—as it comes from the manufacturer—is too thick for easy manipulation and must be thinned. Once the paper is covered, any details and modeling can be done in still thinner paint.

对手的支持

Support for the Hand

我不知道你喜欢小规模还是大规模的工作。如果您的工作尺寸需要将手放在图画上，请在手下放一张纸，这样就不会干扰描画的线条或油漆本身。此外，将手滑过一张光滑的纸比滑过绘画区域的纹理更容易。当然，您可以将手放在木棒或尺子上。如果没有其中之一，一些艺术家甚至不会放下哪怕是最微小的一笔。

I don’t know whether you prefer to work in a small or large scale. If you work in a size that requires your hand to rest on the drawing, slip a piece of paper under your hand so you won’t disturb the traced line or the paint itself. Besides, it’s easier to glide your hand over a piece of smooth paper than over the texture of the painted areas. Of course, you can rest your hand on a mahlstick or a ruler. Some artists wouldn’t put down even the minutest stroke without one or the other.

控制不透明

Controlling Opaque

该项目的第二幅静物画的主题是一个娃娃——可怜的珍珠。尽管珀尔很迷人，但她并不是一个很受欢迎的娃娃。因此，如果您或您的朋友没有她，请使用任何带有仿真头发和图案连衣裙的娃娃。

The subject of the second still life in this project is a doll—Pitiful Pearl. Engaging as she is, Pearl isn’t a very popular doll. So, if you or your friends don’t have her, use any doll with simulated hair and a patterned dress.

这个演示，就像你在水洗中所做的贝壳静物一样，需要对不透明介质进行更完整的控制。在制作生菜和番茄时，如果某些比例或值略有偏差，并不重要。然而，这里的任何偏差都会立即显现出来。

This demonstration, like the shell still life you did in wash, requires a more complete control of the opaque medium. In doing the lettuce and tomato it didn’t really matter if some proportions or values were slightly off. However, any deviations here would be instantly apparent.

我知道专注于媒介的处理是多么容易。因此，不要忽视这样一个事实：在这本书中你主要关注的是绘画。即使物体的底层结构被外壳隐藏，也要始终意识到它的存在并极大地影响表面的最终形状和特征（图 B和C）。当你以这种理解方式进行绘画时，无论你是在绘制衣服上的褶皱，还是对形状进行建模，你的作品都会令人信服。

I know how easy it is to get absorbed in the handling of a medium. So don’t lose sight of the fact that your main concern throughout this book is drawing. Even if the underlying structure of an object is hidden by outer coverings, always be aware that it exists and greatly affects the final shape and character of the surface (Figures B and C). When you draw with this type of understanding, your work will be convincing—whether you’re rendering a fold on a garment, or modeling a form.

不透明的适用性

Suitability of Opaque

正如您将在《可怜的珍珠》的最终不透明渲染中看到的那样，不透明是最适合该主题的媒介。使用不透明，您可以轻松地将珍珠的浅色发丝渲染在她脖子的阴影上，尤其是在中灰色背景上渲染她裙子的白色图案。你能想象将其渲染成水洗效果并围绕白色设计进行工作吗？不可思议。

As you’ll see in the final opaque rendering of Pitiful Pearl, opaque is the medium most suited to the subject. With opaque you can easily render the light strands of Pearl’s hair over the shadow of her neck and especially the white pattern of her dress over a medium gray ground. Can you imagine rendering this in wash and working your way all around the white design? Unthinkable.

图 A.在准备工作图时，重点关注正确的比例、关系以及光影的总体分布。请记住，这只是一个指南，而不是绘图本身。任何细致的细节都应该留给最终的不透明渲染。我在薄纸上使用了 Eagle“绘图”铅笔 #314，以便稍后可以轻松地将绘图绘制到插图板上。请参阅蔬菜演示，了解我如何以不透明方式绘制绘图。

Figure A. Concentrate on correct proportions, relationships, and the general distribution of lights and shadows when preparing a working drawing. Remember it’s only a guide, not a drawing per se. Any meticulous detail should be left for the final rendering in opaque. I’ve used an Eagle “draughting” pencil #314 on thin paper so that the drawing could easily be traced later onto illustration board. See the Vegetables demonstration to see how I develop the drawing in opaque.

图 B。只有当您意识到塑造她头部的修改后的球体时，珀尔脸上的阴影才会令人信服。当你观察她脖子下面的圆柱体形状时，你会毫不费力地让珀尔裙子的领子“绕着它转”。出于同样的原因，了解她的胸腔和手臂是圆柱形的将有助于您执行织物图案、渲染其褶皱以及放置其阴影和投射阴影。

Figure B. The shadows on Pearl’s face will only be convincing if you’re aware of the modified sphere that shapes her head. When you observe the cylinder shape underlying her neck, you’ll have no trouble in making the collar of Pearl’s dress “go around it.” By the same token, knowing that her rib cage and her arm are cylindrical will help you in the execution of the fabric pattern, the rendering of its folds, and the placement of its shadows and cast shadows.

图 C.将娃娃摆成坐姿，最好在人工照明下，以便阴影保持不变。查看她的头部与身体的尺寸关系，以及她手臂的长度、粗细和位置。当你画她的五官时，要注意她头部的倾斜。画出眼睛的参考线以及鼻子和嘴巴位置的中线，就像画人头时一样。如果她衣服上的图案是浅色深色，就像珀尔的那样，那么在工作图中将其变成深色浅色，就像我在这里所做的那样。然后反转不透明绘图中的值。请参阅此处，了解不透明珍珠的演示。

Figure C. Set your doll up in a sitting position, preferably under artificial lighting so that the shadows remain the same. Look for the size relationship of her head to her body, and in turn, the length, thickness, and position of her arm. When you draw her features be aware of the slant of her head. Put down the guideline for her eyes and the middle line for the placement of her nose and mouth, just as you did when drawing a human head. If the pattern on her dress is light on dark, as Pearl’s is, do it dark on light in the working drawing as I’ve done here. Then reverse the values in the opaque drawing. See here for the demonstration of Pearl in opaque.

蔬菜，第 1 步：我仅在插图板上描绘了工作图中元素的主要轮廓。灯光和阴影（细节）将在平坦色调的基础上渲染。把你的画贴在插图板的顶部；只需将其翻转到板后面即可。开始将中间值应用到对象。

Vegetables, Step 1: I’ve traced only the main outline of the elements in the working drawing onto illustration board. The lights and shadows—the detail—will be rendered on top of a flat tone. Leave your drawing taped to the top of the illustration board; just flip it over behind the board. Begin applying the middle values to the objects.

蔬菜，第 2 步：当中间值干燥时，将工作图翻转到插图板上，并在这些平坦的涂漆区域上描出重要细节。找出在不影响下面平淡色调的情况下油漆可以有多薄。学生的倾向是用太厚的颜料来妨碍自己。尝试找出可以将油漆涂成多薄，同时仍能获得所需的效果。

Vegetables, Step 2: When the middle values are dry, flip the working drawing back over the illustration board and trace the important details over these flat, painted areas. Find out how thin the paint can be without disturbing the flat tone underneath. The tendency of the student is to handicap himself with paint that’s too thick. Try to find out how thin you can make your paint and still get the desired effects.

蔬菜，第 3 步：当您开始表达细节时，请同时使用比中间色调更亮和更暗的值。通过比较明亮的通道和黑暗的通道，您将能够更好地判断两者的正确色调。从现在开始，只需对照另一个区域检查一个区域的值即可。如果某个斑点太暗或太亮，您可以通过让其干燥然后用正确的值在其上绘画来轻松纠正它。

Vegetables, Step 3: As you begin the articulation of details, work with both the values that are lighter as well as those that are darker than the middle tone. By comparing the light with the dark passages, you’ll be better able to judge the proper tones of both. From here on, it’s a matter of checking the values of one area against another. If a spot turns out too dark or too light, you can easily correct it by letting it dry and then painting over it with the correct value.

蔬菜，第四步：这是我所能做到的对我面前物体的最忠实的转录。这是一个不透明的绘图，采用了您在项目 24中练习过的两种混合方法。它不是，也不会假装是一件艺术品。然而，这是良好工艺的结果，在你立志成为一名创意艺术家之前，你必须具备这一点。注意背景；正如您所看到的，这是一个湿对湿混合的色调带。

Vegetables, Step 4: This is as faithful a transcription of the objects before me as I could make. It’s a drawing in opaque that employs both methods of blending that you practiced in Project 24. It’s not, and doesn’t pretend to be, a work of art. However, it’s the result of sound craftsmanship, and this you must acquire before you can aspire to be a creative artist. Notice the background; as you can see, it’s a wet-in-wet blended tonal band.

可怜的珍珠，第1步：与生菜和西红柿的转移不同，这里我不仅描绘了珍珠的轮廓，还描绘了珍珠的脸和衣服的主要细节。我画出了她头发上灯光的形状和位置。我在 Grumbacher #150 插图板上完成了这幅不透明的绘画，尺寸为 10 英寸 × 15 英寸，具有中等纹理表面。

Pitiful Pearl, Step 1: Unlike the transferring of the lettuce and tomato, here I’ve traced not only the outline but also the main details of Pearl’s face and dress. I’ve drawn the shape and position of the light on her hair. I’ve done this opaque drawing on Grumbacher #150 illustration board, 10″ × 15″, with a medium texture surface.

可怜的珍珠，第2步：转移珍珠脸部所有重要特征的原因是我将使用插图板本身作为她的脸部和手臂的白色。这是常识问题；如果任何白色区域相当大，则用色调覆盖它是不切实际的，只能通过在其上绘画将其恢复为白色。这里的油漆厚度刚好足以覆盖纸张，但又不足以擦掉指示她衣服上的褶皱的铅笔线。如果你的油漆完全覆盖了它们，只需将你的工作图翻转到插图板上，然后在上面画出线条即可。

Pitiful Pearl, Step 2: The reason for transfering all the important features of Pearl’s face is that I’m going to use the illustration board itself for the white of her face and arm. It’s a matter of common sense; if any white area is quite large, it’s not practical to cover it with a tone, only to have to bring it back to white by painting over it. Here the paint is just thick enough to cover the paper, but not thick enough to obliterate the pencil lines indicating the folds on her dress. If your paint covers them completely, just flip your working drawing back over your illustration board and retrace the lines on top.

可怜的珍珠，第 3 步：注意她脸上的浅灰色，与她的衣服和头发的中间值相比。随着最亮值和中间色调的建立，现在需要将比例一直降低到黑色。在将深色造型涂抹到她的头发上之前，请用清水沾湿尖头刷。沿着头发的方向，用刷子扫过明亮的区域，以“杀死”裸露的纸张。这使得整个色调更接近头发的局部颜色。再次翻转你的工作图并描出她衣服的图案。

Pitiful Pearl, Step 3: Note the lighter gray on her face, compared to the middle value of her dress and hair. With the lightest value and the middle tone already established, it’s now a matter of going down the scale all the way to black. Before you apply the darker modeling to her hair, dampen a pointed brush in clear water. Following the direction of the hair, work your brush across the light area to “kill” the bare paper. This brings the entire tonal mass closer to the hair’s local color. Flip your working drawing back again and trace the pattern of her dress.

可怜的珍珠，第 4 步：我在这幅画上使用了所有三种水彩画笔（#3、#5、#7）。我用#5 来建模脸部，用#7 来建模裙子和头发，用#3 来定义脖子上和手臂后面的单根头发。我还用它来制作她衣服上的图案。绘制细线时，将画笔放在屠夫托盘或一张废纸上的一个点上。将其垂直于纸张表面。

Pitiful Pearl, Step 4: I’ve used all three—#3, #5, #7—watercolor brushes on this drawing. I’ve used a #5 for the modeling on the face, a #7 for the dress and the hair, and a #3 for the definition of the single strands of hair over her neck and behind her arm. I’ve also used it for the pattern on her dress. When rendering thin lines, work your brush to a point on the butcher’s tray or on a piece of scrap paper. Hold it perpendicular to the surface of the paper.

项目 26

户外不透明

PROJECT 26

Outdoors with Opaque

现在让我们到户外去画不透明的草图。我希望您牢记的一个区别是，在不透明中，您使用白色油漆来减轻明度，而不是在水洗时向黑色油漆中加水。对于不透明，您使用相同稠度的油漆；您可以通过分别浸入较浅或较深的灰色来使色调变亮或变暗。

Let’s go outdoors now and sketch in opaque. The one distinction I’d like you to keep uppermost in your mind is that in opaque you use white paint to lighten a value as opposed to adding water to black paint when working in wash. With opaque you use the same consistency of paint; you lighten or darken a tone by dipping into lighter or darker grays respectively.

不透明水彩和自然

Opaque Watercolor and Nature

正如我之前提到的，不透明水彩画比水洗在渲染方面具有更大的灵活性。除了易于校正和操作之外，不透明还可以让您根据自己的选择快速或缓慢地构建绘图。

As I’ve mentioned before, opaque watercolor allows you greater flexibility in rendering than wash. Along with its ease of correction and manipulation, opaque let’s you build up your drawing quickly or slowly, as you choose.

这种媒介特别适合户外绘画，因为它既快速又多功能。不透明干燥快且易于修正，让您快速、自发地工作。当您试图捕捉转瞬即逝的自然情绪时，这些都是重要的属性。

This medium is particularly suited to drawing outdoors because it’s both speedy and versatile. Opaque dries quickly and is easily corrected, allowing you to work rapidly and spontaneously. These are important attributes when you’re trying to capture a fleeting mood of nature.

携带材料

Materials to Take Along

对于您的第一幅不透明户外素描，请使用 Grumbacher 水彩垫 #7182 R 和一组预混合的灰色。您还需要屠夫托盘和一个水瓶（带有旋盖的塑料瓶是理想的选择）。一些抹布、#3 和 #5 水彩笔以及一支办公铅笔也应该放入您标记为“不透明”的特定盒子中。最后但并非最不重要的一点是，带上自信的桶，这样你就可以带回出色的草图。

For your first outdoor sketch in opaque, take the Grumbacher watercolor pad #7182 R and a set of pre-mixed grays. You’ll also need the butcher’s tray and a water bottle (a plastic bottle with a screw-on lid is ideal). Some rags, #3 and #5 watercolor brushes, and an office pencil should also go into a particular box that you’ve labeled “opaque.” Last, but never least, take along barrels of confidence so that you can bring back a terrific sketch.

选择主题

Choosing a Subject

让我再说一遍，您不必绘制与我在这里所做的相同的主题。选择您认为有吸引力的任何内容。这时，如果你发现不透明的东西太难在现场处理，请务必使用铅笔或木炭。抓住一切机会出去画画，然后带回草图在工作室完成。如果你因为恶劣天气而被限制在宿舍里，那么看看窗外，画下你所看到的一切。

Let me repeat that you don’t have to draw the same subjects that I’ve done here. Choose whatever you find appealing. At this time, if you happen to find opaque too difficult to handle on location by all means use pencil or charcoal. Go out and draw at every opportunity and bring back your sketches for finishing in the studio. If you’re confined to quarters because of inclement weather, then look out the window and sketch whatever you see.

图 A。我在该绘图中使用了与该项目演示中使用的相同的过程。首先，我用铅笔画出大形状的简单轮廓，然后在整个图片区域上涂上一层薄薄的浅灰色。在这间公寓上，海角、两块突出的岩石和海滩都铺上了#5 灰色。然后我把水涂成浅灰色。悬崖底部的一些黑色和海浪的一些白色成为色调方案的极端。在海滩上，我使用海绵创造出卵石纹理。最后，我添加了海滩的暗边缘与海浪的对比以及水面上的倒影。

Figure A. I’ve used the same procedure for this drawing that I’ve used in the demonstration for this project. First, I do a simple pencil outline of the big shapes, followed by a thin layer of light gray over the entire picture area. Over this flat wash the promentory, the two projecting rocks, and the beach are laid in with #5 gray. Then I paint the lighter gray of the water. A few dabs of black at the base of the cliff and some white for the surf become the extremes of the tonal scheme. On the beach I use the sponge to create a pebbly texture. Finally, I add the dark edge of the beach against the surf and the reflections on the water.

图 B.谷仓一直让我着迷；我不知道为什么。当我无法停下来画出哪怕是最简单的粗略草图时，我感到很痛苦。这是我在新斯科舍省某处的车上完成的。左角的细节显示了我如何使用画笔的侧面来绘制地面纹理。请注意格鲁巴赫垫上纸张的鹅卵石表面如何发挥作用。

Figure B. Barns have always held a fascination for me; I don’t know why. It pains me when I can’t stop and do even the simplest rough sketch of them. This one was done from my car somewhere in Nova Scotia. The detail in the left corner shows how I use the side of my brush for the ground textures. Notice how the pebbled surface of the paper on the Grumbacher pad plays its part.

乡村教堂，第 1 步：我首先用深色铅笔线绘制大形状，任何地方都没有细节。我使线条清晰且黑暗，以便它通过我应用于整个图片区域的第一层薄薄的不透明层显示出来。请注意，我是从背景开始工作，将背景形状重叠到前面的形状中。由于我使用的是不透明，因此我可以在较暗的形状上放置较亮的形状，就像我对教堂和草地所做的那样。

Country Church, Step 1: I begin by drawing the big shapes in dark pencil line with no detail anywhere. I make the line definite and dark so that it shows through the first, thin layer of opaque which I’ve applied to the entire picture area. Notice that I’m working from the background forward, overlapping the background shapes into the ones in front. Since I’m using opaque, I can put a lighter shape on top of a darker one—as I’ll do with the church and the grass.

乡村教堂，第 2 步：现在我开始走向前台。从教堂开始，我将其正面设为白色，侧面设为浅灰色，屋顶设为深灰色。我为这个草图选择了不透明，因为我可以轻松地将教堂的白色叠加在背景上。更重要的是，我可以将高大、浅色的草渲染在其后面的黑色物体上。教堂的白色和常绿的黑色是我的“主”色调。

Country Church, Step 2: Now I begin working my way to the foreground. Starting with the church, I put in the white of its front, the light gray on its side, and the dark gray on its roof. I’ve chosen opaque for this sketch because I can easily superimpose the white of the church upon the background. More importantly I could render the tall, light grass over the dark mass behind it. The white of the church and the black evergreen are my “key” tones.

乡村教堂，第 3 步：完成大形状后（如乡村教堂，第 2 步），您可以开始较小的细节。我用铅笔在窗户上画了一些模糊的指导线，这样它们就符合教堂的视角。然后，使用#3 貂毛刷的笔尖向上扫动，我画了高高的草丛。与教堂的纯白色相比，它的价值是#1灰色。最后，我用同样的灰色，同样的画笔，在远处墓地的墓碑上轻轻一弹。

Country Church, Step 3: When the big shapes are done (as in Country Church, Step 2), you can begin the smaller details. I’ve put in faint guidelines in pencil for the windows, so that they would conform to the perspective of the church. Then, in sweeping upward strokes using the point of the #3 sable brush, I did the tall grass. Its value, checked against the pure white of the church, turned out to be a #1 gray. Finally, using the same gray and the same brush, I flicked in the tombstones of the cemetery in the distance.

项目 27

亚克力技术

PROJECT 27

Acrylic Techniques

这是我们一直在探索的最新媒体，也是最令人兴奋的媒体之一。有很多关于这个主题的精彩书籍。其中在丙烯画完整指南温登·布莱克和另一个人，Gutierrez 和 Roukes 的丙烯酸绘画。尽管我对这种媒介只是略知一二，但我认为它很棒。在本书的范围内——只涉及绘画——我不可能做到公正。我能做的就是提请您注意。

This is the newest of media we’ve been exploring and one of the most exciting. There are marvelous books covering the subject. Among them in the Complete Guide to Acrylic Painting by Wendon Blake and another, Painting with Acrylics by Gutierrez and Roukes. Even though I have only a nodding acquaintence with this medium, I think it’s great. Within the scope of this book—concerned only with drawing—I couldn’t possibly do it justice. The best I can do is only to bring it to your attention.

画笔、颜料和表面

Brushes, Pigment, and Surfaces

出于您的目的，您所需要的只是一根黑色丙烯酸管和一根白色管。由于是水溶性的，您不需要任何额外的设备，除了（如果您愿意）Grumbacher 制造的特殊尼龙刷（平头和圆头）。您还可以将画布和石膏面板添加到您一直使用的绘图表面。与不透明水彩画一样，丙烯酸树脂也有管子和罐子装，其辅助材料也装在罐子和瓶子里，如图A所示。

For your purposes here, all you need is a tube of black acrylic and a tube of white. Being water soluble, you won’t need any added equipment, except, if you wish, the special nylon brushes—both flat and round-pointed—manufactured by Grumbacher. You can also add canvas and gesso panels to the drawing surfaces you’ve been using. Like opaque watercolor, acrylic comes in tubes and jars, with its adjuncts in tins and bottles, as I’ve shown in Figure A.

亚克力的特性

Characteristics of Acrylic

亚克力有很多值得推荐的地方。丙烯具有水彩画的自发性和直接性，而且不会有褪色的风险（图 B和C）。丙烯酸干燥得很快，因此您可以先涂底漆，然后上釉（在先前涂漆的表面上涂上薄薄的颜色），而不必等待数天，就像在油中涂底漆一样（图 D和E ）。

Acrylic has much to recommend it. Acrylic lends itself to the spontaneity and directness of watercolor without running the risk of color fading (Figures B and C). Acrylic dries quickly, allowing you to underpaint and then to glaze (to apply thin washes of color over a previously painted surface) without having to wait for days, as you would if you underpainted in oils (Figures D and E).

您可以涂上最厚的厚涂颜料，而不必担心破裂，特别是如果您的支撑物是木板或石膏板的话。你可以用它渲染最细致的“硬边”。丙烯可以表现出最细腻、最复杂的笔触，也可以表现出最粗犷、最有力、最浮躁的笔触（图F、G和H）。

You can apply the thickest impasto without fear of cracking, especially if your support is wood or gesso panel. You can render the most meticulous “hard edge” with it. The most delicate and intricate as well as the roughest, most vigorous, and impetuous brushwork is possible with acrylic (Figures F, G, and H).

如果您喜欢“拼贴”（粘贴的花哨词），则可以使用丙烯酸介质作为粘合剂。学习如何绘画后，您可以探索这种将纸或其他东西粘到绘画表面的技术。这是许多当代艺术家非常青睐的方法。

The acrylic medium can be used as a gluing agent if you’re sympathetic to “collage” (fancy word for pasting). After you learn how to draw, you can explore this technique of gluing paper or other things to your drawing surface. It’s an approach much favored by many contemporary artists.

亚克力的多功能性

Versatility of Acrylic

虽然丙烯酸在应用中是水溶性的，但干燥后会变得防水！亚克力可以像透明水彩一样使用，也可以与水混合后进行清洗。当您使用专门准备的介质时，您可以获得油般的光泽釉面。直接从管中取出，您可以获得浓密、哑光的效果，让人想起不透明的效果。

Although acrylic is water soluble in its application, it becomes waterproof when it dries! Acrylic can be used like transparent watercolor or wash when you mix it with water. When you use a specially prepared medium, you can get the glossy glaze of an oil. Straight from the tube you can achieve thick, matte effects reminisent of opaque.

不利的一面是，丙烯酸对紫貂刷来说相当粗糙。工作时一定要彻底冲洗刷子，切勿让带有任何颜料的刷子干燥。

On the negative side, acrylic is rather harsh on sable brushes. You must be sure to rinse your brushes thoroughly as you work, and never let them dry with any pigment on them.

图A。您有责任调查这个最新的媒体。我想不出有什么是你不能用它做的，无论你选择什么类型的学科作为你的专业，或者你可能觉得什么技术最合适。

Figure A. You owe it to yourself to investigate this newest of all media. I can think of nothing that you can’t do with it, no matter what type of subject you may choose as your speciality or what technique you may find most congenial.

图 B.以水为介质，您可以像水彩一样使用丙烯颜料，并真正溅到潮湿的表面上，如下所示。用作水洗时，可以准备从浅灰到深灰加黑色的四种灰度值。通过这些加上纸张的白色，您将拥有足够宽的值范围来渲染任何主题。

Figure B. With water as a medium, you can use acrylic paint like watercolor and really splash away on a wet surface as shown here. Used as wash, you can prepare four gray values from light to dark gray plus black. With these plus the white of the paper you’ll have a value range wide enough to render any subject.

图 C.首先用铅笔徒手或用圆规标出球体的轮廓。使用纸张本身作为亮点；用清水将其圈起来，当你进入较暗的区域时开始添加颜料。完成球体后，首先用清水围绕投射阴影，然后在到达球体底部时添加颜料。当您可以正确执行球体时，继续并躺在平洗中，部分叠加它们，如这些方块所示。这些平洗的执行方式与水洗相同。

Figure C. Begin by indicating the contour of the sphere in pencil, either freehand or with a compass. Use the paper itself for the highlight; circle it with clear water, and begin adding pigment as you get into the darker areas. When you’re done with the sphere, begin by circling the cast shadow with clear water and then add pigment as you work your way to the sphere’s base. When you can execute a sphere properly, go on and lay in the flat washes, partly superimposing them as shown in these squares. These flat washes are executed in the same manner as those done with wash.

图 D.丙烯酸的巨大优势之一是，您可以在绘制的纹理或图案上涂上任意数量的色调，而不会干扰下面的工作。练习渲染这种木材纹理或任何您想要的图案。丙烯酸干燥得非常快，因此您在完成图案后就可以开始上光。

Figure D. One of the tremendous advantages of acrylic is that you can glaze any number of tones over a painted texture or pattern without in the least disturbing the work underneath. Practice rendering this texture of wood, or any pattern you wish. Acrylic drys so quickly that you can begin glazing the moment you’re done with your pattern.

图 E.使用调色刀涂抹白色丙烯酸颜料。您可以将管子直接挤压在插图板上，也可以从屠夫托盘中拿起未稀释的油漆，然后用画刀将其铺在板上。油漆越厚，干燥所需的时间就越长，因此在涂釉之前用指尖测试一下，如右图所示。

Figure E. This impasto of white acrylic is applied with the palette knife. You can either squeeze the tube right on the illustration board or you can pick up the undiluted paint from your butcher’s tray and spread it on the board with your painting knife. The thicker the paint, the longer it takes to dry, so test it with your fingertip before you apply the glaze, shown at the right.

图 F.您可以通过用白色上光来提高色调的值，而不必重新渲染色调。这里的原始音调位于左侧，当我向右移动时，我用较浅的音调“掩盖”了它。如果稠度足够厚，我可以用白色完全覆盖黑色的干画笔触。

Figure F. You can raise a tone’s value by glazing it with white, instead of having to render the tone all over again. The original tone here is at the left, which I’ve “veiled” with lighter tones as I move right. With a thick enough consistency, I could have completely covered the black drybrush strokes with white.

图 G.实现纹理效果的另一种方法是在某个区域上进行平洗。在仍然湿润的情况下，用湿海绵、干纸巾、一块布或任何能给您带来所需纹理效果的东西轻拍该区域。

Figure G. Another way to achieve textural effects is to apply a flat wash over an area. While still wet, dab the area with a damp sponge, a dry paper towel, a piece of cloth, or anything that will give you the textural effect you need.

图 H。您已经看到可以使用这种介质作为清洗剂，并且可以直接从管中应用它以产生厚厚的厚涂颜料。您还可以用它渲染最精致的线条——浅色加深色或深色加浅色。

Figure H. You’ve seen that you can use this medium as a wash, and that you can apply it straight from the tube to produce a thick impasto. You can also render the most delicate lines with it—either light on dark or dark on light.

项目28

亚克力静物

PROJECT 28

Still Life in Acrylic

永远不要过于专注于特定媒介的特性，以至于忘记了绘画的基本原理。我如此专注于渲染我的樱桃番茄静物画的形状、纹理和明度，以至于我看不到这幅画的错误构图。事实上，直到我将工作图转移到插图板上时，我才发现我的错误。

Never get so engrossed in the properties of the particular medium that you forget the basic fundamentals of drawing. I became so involved in rendering the shapes, textures, and values of my cherry tomato still life that I failed to see the drawing’s faulty composition. In fact, I didn’t see my error until I’d transferred my working drawing to the illustration board.

我之前提到过，除非你完全确定它无法改进，否则你不应该开始描画绘图。然而，我想我应该修改这条规则，说你应该考虑改变，即使你已经完成了你的绘画。无数次，艺术家会改变完成的图片中的某些内容，以改善其构图或增强其情绪。研究绘画的构图，确保其具有适当的节奏和流程。

I’ve mentioned before that you shouldn’t begin tracing a drawing until you’re absolutely sure it can’t be improved. However, I guess I should amend that rule to say that you should consider change, even after you’ve finished your drawing. Countless times an artist will change something in a finished picture to improve its composition or to heighten its mood. Study the composition of your drawing to be sure it has the proper rhythm and flow.

构图与动作

Composition and Movement

需要一整本书才能正确地阐述构图主题，但我将在这里谈一些基础知识。布置物品时，请考虑图片区域。请注意我在该项目的静物画中使用的矩形。它有两个水平（顶部和底部）和两个垂直（左侧和右侧）边界。由于这些边界内没有绘制任何内容，观众的眼睛已经受到它们产生的运动的影响：侧向、上下。当您在此区域内放置任何东西（即使是一条线或一个点）时，您就已经设置了观看者眼睛将跟随的方向。

It would take an entire book to do justice to the subject of composition, but I’ll touch on some rudiments here. When arranging your objects, consider the picture area. Notice the rectangle I’m using in the still life of this project. It has two horizontal (top and bottom) and two vertical (left and right) boundaries. With nothing drawn within these borders, the spectator’s eye is already influenced by the movement they generate: sideways and up and down. The moment you place anything, even one line or a single dot within this area, you’ve set in motion a direction that the viewer’s eye will follow.

通过垂直线，您开始了上下运动，图片区域的垂直边缘进一步加强了这种运动。当您在图片区域的任何位置放置一个点时，您就将观众的注意力吸引到了该特定位置。当你在任何空白区域插入一个标记时，你就已经开始行动了。

With the vertical line you’ve started an up and down movement that’s further reinforced by the vertical edges of the picture area. When you place a dot anywhere in the picture area, you’ve riveted the viewer’s attention to that particular spot. The moment you interject a mark into any blank area, you’ve set things in motion.

考虑图片空间

Considering Picture Space

具体来说，如果我在静物画中只使用一个篮子并将其放在中间，那就没有问题了。观众的眼睛如果没有其他东西可以分散注意力，就会直接看向它。但由于我用了两个篮子，所以整体形状立刻就变成了横向的。柜台顶部和底部边缘的水平推力（尽管有点倾斜），加上图片区域本身的顶部和底部边缘，导致水平移动变得更强（图A，视图1）。

Specifically, if I’d used only one basket in my still life and placed it in the center, there’d have been no problem. The viewer’s eye, with nothing else to distract it, would have gone right to it. But since I used two baskets, the overall shape immediately became horizontal. The horizontal thrust (even though slanting a bit) of the top and bottom edges of the counter, plus the top and bottom edges of the picture area itself, caused the horizontal movement to become strong (Figure A, view 1).

这种运动是如此强烈，以至于图片中没有其他运动——例如从篮子里滚出的西红柿的对角推力，或者右侧单个西红柿的“靶心”——强大到足以充当一种反推力。为了改变这种无情的水平运动，唯一的答案是创建一个强大的垂直方向，由油罐提供（图 A，视图 2）。

This movement was so strong that no other movement in the picture—the diagonal thrust of the tomatoes which have rolled out of the basket, for example, or the “bull’s eye” of the single tomato at the right—was strong enough to serve as a counterthrust. To modify this relentless horizontal movement, the only answer was to create a strong vertical, provided by the oil can (Figure A, view 2).

图A。该工作图确定了图片中元素的比例和位置。请参阅下面的演示中的完成图。

Figure A. This working drawing establishes the proportions and the placement of the elements in the picture. See the finished drawing in the demonstration that follows.

图 B.注意整个图片中平滑和粗糙纹理的相互作用。正如我所提到的，形式之间有很好的平衡。由于焦点由两个立方体组成，我觉得它们应该通过樱桃番茄的球形和油罐的圆柱形结构来缓解。

Figure B. Notice the interplay of smooth and rough textures throughout the picture. As I mentioned, there’s a nice balance of forms. Since the focal point consists of two cubic shapes, I feel they should be relieved by the spherical forms of the cherry tomatoes and the cylindrical structure of the oil can.

项目29

户外与墨水和混合媒体

PROJECT 29

Outdoors with Ink and Mixed Media

我已经提到过，所有媒体都是令人兴奋且值得研究的。其中就有印度墨水。它具有防水性，能够产生最浓密的黑色。它也可以用作洗涤剂。使用墨水可以画出清晰的线条。无论您在粗糙还是光滑的纸张上工作，它都具有清新和脆感。

I’ve mentioned that all media are exciting and worth investigating. Among them is India ink. It’s waterproof and capable of producing the densest blacks. It can also be used as a wash as well. With ink you can produce an incisive line. It has a freshness and crispness whether you work on rough or smooth paper.

墨水和附加设备

Ink and Additional Equipment

如果您打算专门从事印度墨水，您可以购买一盎司瓶装、品脱甚至夸脱的印度墨水。对于本项目中演示的人物，您需要一瓶一盎司的黑色墨水。其余必要的设备您可能已经拥有：#3 和#5 尖头貂毛刷、一个斜面调色板、几块海绵和一些抹布。您可以使用 #1171 Aquabee 垫或任何水彩垫作为绘图表面。

You can obtain India ink in one ounce bottles, pints, or even quarts if you’re going to dedicate yourself to it exclusively. For the figures demonstrated in this project, you’ll need a one ounce bottle of black ink. The rest of the necessary equipment you probably already have: #3 and #5 pointed sable brushes, a slant-and-well palette, a couple of sponges, and some rags. You can use a #1171 Aquabee pad or any watercolor pad for your drawing surface.

水当然是必需的。携带它到现场有时可能会出现问题。然而，我发现空塑料瓶，例如装有苹果酒的塑料瓶，是完美的载体，在任何超市都可以找到。这种瓶子的瓶塞在不使用时可以紧密贴合；您甚至可以将瓶子侧放，而不必担心泄漏。这个瓶子可以装足够的水来支持一整天的素描。

Water, of course, is necessary. Carrying it on location can sometimes be a problem. However, I find that an empty plastic bottle, such as the kind that contains cider, is the perfect carrier and can be found in any supermarket. The stopper of such a bottle fits snugly when not in use; you can even place the bottle on its side without fear of leakage. The bottle can carry enough water to last through a whole day of sketching.

两种水墨技法

Two Ink Techniques

一种墨水绘画方法由两个不同的阶段组成。首先，使用钢笔或画笔用墨水绘制线条。然后，在线条图上涂上灰色的水洗。由于墨水是不可磨灭的，所以原始的线条画不会受到干扰。

One approach to drawing in ink consists of two distinct phases. First, you do a line drawing in ink using a pen or brush. Then, you apply washes of gray over the line drawing. Since the ink is indelible, the original line drawing isn’t disturbed.

首先，艺术家唯一关心的是线条画是否正确。然后，由于正确的绘图已经用墨水绘制出来，唯一剩下的问题是色调方案。您可以尝试从轻微清洗开始。您可以通过将几滴墨水倒入斜井调色板中并添加清水来获得这样的水洗效果，就像您在水洗工作中所做的那样。当比例是水多于墨水时，价值就轻。当过程相反时，值会变暗，直到达到瓶子墨水的纯黑色。

First, the artist’s only concern is that the line drawing is correct. Then, since the correct drawing is already set down in ink, the only remaining problem is the tonal scheme. This you can begin tentatively with light washes. You can obtain such a wash by pouring a few drops of ink into the slant-and-well palette and adding clear water, exactly the way you did when working in wash. When the ratio is more water than ink, the value is light. When the process is reversed, the values are darker, until you reach the pure black of the bottle ink.

另一种方法是直接在水彩纸或插图板上开始绘画。在这里，您可以在一条非常微弱的线条中建立比例和关系，该线条主要由水和一滴墨水组成。然后，您可以根据主题的需要开始以越来越深的色调执行任何纹理或建模。除了刷子之外，您还可以使用海绵、纸巾和任何其他工具来涂抹墨水（图 A和B）。

Another approach is to begin your drawing directly on watercolor paper or illustration board. Here you establish proportions and relationships in a very faint line produced from mostly water with a drop of ink. Then, you can begin the execution of any textures or modeling in deeper and deeper tones as the subject requires. In addition to brushes, you can use sponges, paper towels, and any other tool to apply the ink (Figures A and B).

户外混合媒体

Outdoors with Mixed Media

尽管我已经在单独的项目中讨论了各种介质并在单独的绘图中演示了它们的使用，但在同一绘图中可以使用多种不同的介质。您应该尝试将绘图的各种元素与可以最轻松有效地执行它们的媒介相匹配。

Although I’ve discussed various media in separate projects and demonstrated their use in separate drawings, several different media can be used in the same drawing. You should try and match the various elements of your drawing to the medium in which they can be executed most easily and effectively.

当我看到图 C中的树木时，我立即知道水洗将是捕捉其纹理的最佳媒介。但让我快速补充一下，我不仅知道正确的介质，而且还知道能够给我带来所需结果的表面类型。在光滑的纸或纸板上使用相同的介质不会产生相同的效果。在这幅画以及《双树》中，我使用了“Harmony”Grumbacher 水彩垫#7182 R。它有一种鹅卵石表面，给了我树皮的纹理。

When I saw the trees of Figure C I knew instantly that wash would be the best medium to capture their texture. But let me quickly add that I not only knew the proper medium, but also the kind of surface that would give me the desired result. The same medium on a smooth paper or board wouldn’t have produced the same effect. On this drawing, as well as in Twin Trees, I used a “Harmony” Grumbacher watercolor pad #7182 R. It has a sort of pebbled surface that gave me the texture of the bark.

图A。我想让你尝试用墨水画树木、杂草、草和岩石——如果你足够幸运，身边有它们的话。不要忘记使用海绵来渲染树叶。通过敲击海绵，您可以实现青草效果。您也可以沿着草生长的方向扫海绵。杂草最好用#3 尖头貂毛刷来处理。始终警惕其他创建纹理的非正统技术：用皱巴巴的薄纸涂抹色调，用刀、棍子甚至刷子的手柄刮擦湿色调。

Figure A. I’d like you to try your hand at doing trees, weeds, grass, and rocks in ink—if you’re lucky enough to have them around. Don’t neglect to use the piece of sponge to render foliage. By tapping the sponge you can achieve a grassy effect. You can also sweep the sponge in the direction in which the grass grows. Weeds are better done with the #3 pointed sable brush. Always be on the alert for other unorthodox techniques for creating textures: applying a tone with crumpled tissue paper, scratching a wet tone with a knife, stick, or even the handle of your brush.

图 B.对于这棵用墨水完成的树，我遵循了清洗技术——从最浅的值到最暗的值。我首先用大部分水和足够的墨水来放置最微弱的物体指示，使它们可见。请记住，素描的魅力在于它的新鲜感和自发性。尽量不要因对细节的处理过于挑剔而破坏这些品质。在此和图 A上，我使用了 Aquabee Bristol 垫 #1171、Higgins India 墨水、Winsor & Newton 刷子 #3 和 #5 以及一块海绵。

Figure B. For this tree done in ink I’ve followed the wash technique—working from the very lightest value to the darkest. I begin by laying in the faintest indication of objects with mostly water and just enough ink to make them visible. Remember that the charm of a sketch is its freshness and spontaniety. Try not to destroy these qualities by getting too finicky in your handling of detail. On this and Figure A, I’ve used an Aquabee Bristol pad #1171, Higgins India ink, Winsor & Newton brushes #3 and #5, and a piece of sponge.

图C。除了不透明的浅色树枝外，这幅画中的所有东西都是水洗的。费力地用它们背后的树干的深色色调来处理它们的较浅的值是没有意义的，如果我完全用水洗画的话，我就会被迫这样做。

Figure C. Everything in this drawing is done in wash, with the exception of the light branches which are done in opaque. It just doesn’t make sense to laboriously work around their lighter values with the dark tones of the trunks behind them, as I would have been forced to do if I had done the drawing completely in wash.

图D。我必须走近这座饱经风霜的房子才能用印度墨水给你们做这个演示。使用这种介质最常见的方法是首先绘制线条图 (A)。然后将水洗 (B) 以其各自的色调叠加到线条图上。找到一个主题并按照此处指示的步骤用墨水绘制草图。确保在某种类型的容器中装有水以稀释墨水、抹布、#3 和 #5 水彩笔以及厚纸或插图板。

Figure D. I had to come up close to this weatherbeaten house to give you this demonstration in India ink. The most usual approach with this medium is to first do a line drawing (A). Then superimpose washes (B) in their respective tones onto the line drawing. Find a subject and sketch it in ink following the procedure indicated here. Be sure to have water in some type of container to dilute the ink, a rag, #3 and #5 watercolor brushes, and thick paper or illustration board.

图E.用#3画笔在叶子边缘定义一些点，以减轻海绵产生的单调轮廓。与单独使用任何一种技术相比，在这里一起使用水洗和不透明可以产生更好的纹理和更忠实的值。

Figure E. A few spots are defined on the edge of the foliage with a #3 brush to relieve the monotony of contour produced by the sponge. Wash and opaque used together here produce better textures and more faithful values than either technique alone.

项目 30

绘画儿童在各种媒体中

PROJECT 30

Drawing Children in Various Media

我一直在谈论观察并绘制你所看到的一切的比例。希望这种对绘画基础知识（观察基本形状、光线和纹理）的关注能够忠实地再现（即逼真）您所看到的周围事物。

I’ve been talking about observing and drawing the proportions of everything you see. Hopefully this attention to the fundamentals of drawing (observing basic shapes, lights, and textures) has resulted in a faithful reproduction (that is, realistic) of what you see around you.

裸体与儿童

Nudes versus Children

您已经探索了适用于成人和儿童的头部的一般划分。正如您现在所知，这些比例可能因人而异。然而，它们将在这个最终项目的最后两次演示中提供宝贵的帮助。

You’ve explored the general divisions of the head as they apply to adults and children. As you now know, these proportions may vary from individual to individual. Yet, they’ll be an invaluable aid in doing the last two demonstrations in this final project.

您很可能会问：为什么不画出整个图形来展示已经学到的所有内容呢？我承认这对这本书来说会是一个非常令人印象深刻的结尾，坦白说，我很想以如此雷鸣般的裸体和迷人人物来结束它。但后来我意识到我只是在炫耀，并没有真正提供太多帮助。

You may very well ask: why not draw the entire figure to demonstrate all the things already learned about it? I admit it would have been a very impressive closing to this book, and frankly I was tempted to end it with just such a thunderous volley of nude and glamorous figures. But then I realized I would just be showing off without really being much help.

孩子们不透明

Children in Opaque

正如您在涉及写生的项目中可能发现的那样，找到模特并不是一件容易的事，特别是如果您还没有合适的工作室。我的猜测是，你会喜欢看这样的裸体研究，合上书，为了实际练习，你会回到静物、风景、穿着衣服的人物或肖像。

As you perhaps discovered in the project dealing with life drawing, it’s no easy task to find a model, especially if you don’t yet have a proper studio. My guess is that you would have enjoyed looking at such nude studies, closed the book, and for actual practice you’d have gone back to either still lifes, landscapes, clothed figures, or portraits.

我向所有邻居提出了这个问题。他们想要一幅裸体画，还是一幅他们的孩子的画？需要我告诉你他们的答案吗？他们一致选择了后者。那么在这个前提下，让我们再画两张不透明的儿童肖像（请参阅下面的演示），谁知道呢，您可能会因它们而出名。

I posed the question to all my neighbors. Would they rather have a nude drawing, or a drawing of one of their children? Need I tell you their answers? Unanimously they chose the latter. On that premise then, let’s do two more portraits of children in opaque (see the demonstrations that follow) and who knows, you may become famous for them.

图 A.尝试从生活中画出儿童。选择你最好的图画并将其转移到灰色插图板上，就像我在这里所做的那样。我用揉搓的橡皮擦掉了所有深色铅笔线，这样它们就不会通过我将要使用的洗涤剂显现出来。我在女孩的头上使用了 #3 和 #5 Winsor & Newton 水彩画笔，并在背景上使用了 Simmons 制造的 #20 平貂画笔。

Figure A. Try drawing children from life. Select your best drawing and transfer it to gray illustration board, as I’ve done here. I’ve tapped any dark pencil lines with a kneaded eraser so that they won’t show through the wash that I’ll be using. I’ve used #3 and #5 Winsor & Newton watercolor brushes on the girl’s head, and a #20 flat sable brush, made by Simmons, for the background.

史蒂夫，第 1 步：正如我之前多次做过的那样，我只将男孩头部和特征的大形状从工作图转移到插图板上。我已经在线条中标出了孩子眼睛之间和鼻梁上方的深刘海所产生的阴影。

Steve, Step 1: As I’ve done so many times before, I’ve transferred from my working drawing to my illustration board only the large shapes of the boy’s head and features. I’ve indicated in line the shadow created by the child’s deep bangs between his eyes and over the bridge of his nose.

Steve，第 2 步：在这里，我将#1 灰色以平坦的方式涂抹在孩子的脸上。该应用程序足够薄，可以让他用铅笔画出的特征显现出来。我在他的头发上使用了#2灰色，同样采用平色调。

Steve, Step 2: Here I apply #1 gray to the child’s face in a flat manner. The application is thin enough to allow his penciled features to show through. I use #2 gray on his hair, also applied in a flat tone.

Steve，第 3 步：在这里，我返回并接触工作图，以便能够完善细节。我为他脸上的投射阴影应用了较深的色调。我用尖头貂皮勾勒出他的头发、眉毛和睫毛。我在这里用我揉好的橡皮擦去除他头发上的一些亮点。

Steve, Step 3: Here I go back and touch base with the working drawing in order to be able to refine the details. I apply the darker tones for the cast shadow on his face. With a pointed sable, I delineate the strands of his hair as well as his eyebrows and lashes. I use my kneaded eraser here to lift out some highlights in his hair.

Steve，第 4 步：请注意，我没有对孩子的衬衫进行建模。我在他的头发上用了一点干刷。他脸上的阴影逐渐变淡，从额头和鼻子流下来，最终融入脸颊的色调。

Steve, Step 4: Notice that I’ve left the child’s shirt unmodeled. I’ve used a bit of drybrush in his hair. The shadow on his face becomes light as it runs down from his forehead and nose and blends eventually into the tone of his cheek.

南希，第 1 步：我再次将工作图中的主要形状绘制到插图板上。我将用不透明的方式画这个青春期女孩的肖像。

Nancy, Step 1: Once more, I’ve traced only the main shapes from my working drawing onto my illustration board. I’ll be doing this adolescent girl’s portrait in opaque.

Nancy，第 2 步：在这里，我将主要色调值设置为平淡的灰色水洗。请注意，头发的色调和脸部的色调值都很接近。这是试图用黑白忠实地再现她的本土色彩。

Nancy, Step 2: Here I’ve laid in the main tonal values in flat, gray washes. Notice that both the tone for the hair and that for the face are close in value. This is an attempt to faithfully reproduce her local color in terms of black and white.

南希，第 3 步：这里，较暗的色调已渲染在平洗的顶部。在这个四分之三的姿势中，阴影最深在她的头发中，靠近她右脸的轮廓。

Nancy, Step 3: Here the darker tones have been rendered on top of the flat washes. In this three-quarter pose, the shadows are deepest in her hair next to the contour of the right side of her face.

南希，第 4 步：请注意，我在她脸上所做的混合类型是干刷。我也在她的头发上使用过它。阴影总是从深色向浅色过渡。我在 Grumbacher 的 #150 中等纹理插图板上使用了 Grumbacher Gamma Grays。

Nancy, Step 4: Note that the type of blending that I’ve done on her face is drybrush. I’ve also used it in her hair. The shading always sweeps from dark toward the lighter tone. I’ve used Grumbacher Gamma Grays on Grumbacher’s #150 illustration board with medium texture.

临别赠言

A Parting Word

我希望您的热情和奉献精神，加上我在这些项目中所提供的指导，将使您成为艺术家的道路变得更加容易。我试图留在幕后并抑制任何个人技巧。我并不是想向你们展示我如何挥动铅笔；我只是想向你们展示我如何挥动铅笔。这些技术，无论好坏，都是我自己的。如果我的某些行为习惯已经悄然出现，请完全忽略它们。以您认为美丽且有吸引力的风格渲染您绘制的所有内容。

I hope your enthusiasm and dedication, plus the instruction I’ve advanced throughout these projects, will make the road toward becoming an artist a bit easier for you. I’ve tried to stay in the background and suppress any personal technique. It hasn’t been my intention to show you the way I swing a pencil; these techniques, for better or worse, are mine and mine alone. If some of my mannerisms have crept in, ignore them completely. Render everything you draw in a style that you find beautiful and appealing.

我在这里的唯一目的是让您熟悉我认为最清晰、最实用、最有趣的学习绘画方式。出于这个原因，我强调了该工艺的基础知识。

My only purpose here has been to acquaint you with what I consider the clearest, the most practical, and the most enjoyable way of learning to draw. For this reason I’ve stressed the fundamentals of the craft.

哦，我知道那句老话建议你不要担心画出你所看到的东西，而要关注你所画的东西。确实非常机智。但这个建议应该针对经验丰富的艺术家，而不是艺术学生。首先，我认为你必须学会​​模仿物体；那么你就可以离开它。

Oh, I know the old saw advising you not to worry about drawing what you see, but seeing what you draw. Very witty, indeed. But this advice should be flung at the experienced artist, not the art student. First, I believe that you must learn to imitate the object; then you can depart from it.

来到这本书的最后一个项目让我感到难过。关于这个话题我想说的都已经说完了。在结束之前，请记住，艺术家是常年的学生；还有其他书籍和其他老师可以参考。然而，我希望我已经为您提供了进一步发展技能的设备。如果我让你意识到艺术并不是那么神圣——更多的是通过决心和勤奋来发展你的天赋——那么我会毫无遗憾地在最后一句话上加上句号。

It saddens me to come to the last project in this book. I’ve said everything on the subject that I’ve wanted to say. Before I close, remember than an artist is a perennial student; there are other books and other teachers to be consulted. Yet, I hope that I’ve given you the equipment to develop your skills further. If I’ve made you realize that art is not so bloody sacred—more a matter of developing your gifts through determination and industry—then I’ll put the period on this last sentence without regret.

指数

Index

丙烯酸纤维; 插图。的材料；静物画中

Acrylic; illus. of materials for; still life in

布莱克·温登

Blake, Wendon

搅拌机；插图。的。另请参见 树桩 和 橡皮擦。

Blenders; illus. of. See also Stumps and Erasers.

板，插图，20.1，24.1，27.1​

Board, illustration, 20.1, 24.1, 27.1

身材、基本比例；圆柱形；的透视缩短；的一些测量

Body, basic proportions; cylindrical form of; foreshortening of; some measurements of

刷子，用于丙烯酸树脂；对于不透明；用于洗涤；插图。的, 20.2 , 24.2 , 28.1

Brushes, for acrylic; for opaque; for wash; illus. of, 20.2, 24.2, 28.1

帆布

Canvas

麂皮

Chamois

木炭的优点；捕捉自然情绪；压缩；的缺点；在户外绘画；用;绘图 完成的图纸；插图。的; 操纵; 粉状；渲染特定对象；粗略的草图；静物画中；的多功能性；藤蔓

Charcoal, advantages of; capturing moods of nature with; compressed; disadvantages of; drawing outdoors with; drawing with; finished drawings in; illus. of; manipulation of; powdered; rendering specific objects with; rough sketches in; still life in; versatility of; vine

孩子们，捕捉性格；演示。的; 绘画; 女性特征；不透明；在各种媒体上；男性特征

Children, capturing character of; demos. of; drawing; female characteristics of; in opaque; in various media; male characteristics of

丙烯画完整指南

Complete Guide to Acrylic Painting

构图和动作；考虑空间和；创造；插图。开发一个

Composition, and movement; considering space and; creating; illus. of developing a

圆锥体，基于 绘制对象；的对称性

Cone, the, drawing objects based on; symmetry of

立方体，基于绘制对象

Cube, the, drawing objects based on

圆柱体，基于 的绘图对象；观察形式；渲染

Cylinder, the, drawing objects based on; observing forms of; rendering

示范，丙烯静物；木炭景观；木炭静物；孩子们; 圆锥形物体；面孔；脚; 手；头；户外墨水；写生图画；当地色彩；混合媒体景观；户外不透明，26.1，26.2；不透明的静物；球形物体；静物；户外清洗，21.1，23.1；水洗静物，22.1，23.2

Demonstrations, acrylic still life; charcoal landscape; charcoal still lifes; children; conical objects; faces; feet; hands; heads; ink outdoors; life drawing; local color; mixed media landscape; opaque outdoors, 26.1, 26.2; opaque still life; spherical objects; still life; wash outdoors, 21.1, 23.1; wash still life, 22.1, 23.2

细节，处理，3.1，3.2

Detail, handling of, 3.1, 3.2

绘画、观察；孩子们; 圆锥形物体；立方体物体；曲线；圆柱形物体；耳朵; 一切; 眼睛和眉毛；面孔；脚; 四项原则；来自实物，8.1，11.1；来自生活；的基本原理；手；头；生活中的头；人物形象；婴儿的头部；在各种媒体上；嘴；鼻子；现场；户外；球形物体；对称物体；青少年; 用木炭；户外用木炭；带洗

Drawing, and observation; children; conical objects; cubic objects; curved lines; cylindrical objects; ears; everything; eyes and eyebrows; faces; feet; four principles of; from actual objects, 8.1, 11.1; from life; fundamentals of; hands; heads; heads from life; human figures; infant’s head; in various media; mouths; noses; on the spot; outdoors; spherical objects; symmetrical objects; teenagers; with charcoal; with charcoal outdoors; with wash

图纸，已完成；在职的

Drawings, finished; working

干刷，不透明；带洗

Drybrush, with opaque; with wash

耳朵，图画；插图。的

Ears, drawing; illus. of

边缘，硬边和软边；阴影

Edges, hard and soft; shadow

省略号；插图。的观点与

Ellipses; illus. of perspective with

设备，额外清洗

Equipment, additional wash

橡皮擦；插图。的

Erasers; illus. of

眼睛水平；改变形状和；的图；判断尺寸和；插图。下面的物体；下面的物体

Eye level; changing shapes and; diagram of; judging size and; illus. of objects below; objects below

眉毛，画画；插图。的

Eyebrows, drawing; illus. of

眼睛，绘画；插图。的

Eyes, drawing; illus. of

面孔，绘画；指导方针

Faces, drawing; guidelines for

特征、图表；女性; 指导方针；男性

Features, diagrams of; female; guidelines for; male

脚，绘图

Feet, drawing

人物，人体的基本比例；绘画; 透视缩短；插图。圆柱形；光影上；整体工作

Figure, the human, basic proportions of; drawing; foreshortening; illus. of cylindrical form of; light and shadow on; working over the whole

固定剂；插图。的

Fixative; illus. of

透视缩短

Foreshortening

表格，基本的组合；基本关系；寻找基本的

Forms, putting together basic; relationship of basic; searching for basic

石膏板

Gesso panel

戈雅。弗朗西斯科·何塞·德·戈雅和卢森特斯

Goya. Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes

何塞·古铁雷斯

Gutierrez, José

手，支持

Hand, support for the

手，画画

Hands, drawing

头；的角度和平面；画婴儿；一般程序

Heads; angles and planes of; drawing infant; general procedure for

地平线。请参阅 地平线平面 和 视平线。

Horizon. See Horizon plane and Eye level.

水平面，；轮廓; 插图。的; 关联对象；选择观点和

Horizon plane, the; contours on; illus. of; relating objects on; selecting viewpoints and

墨水；附加设备：户外；两种技术

Ink; additional equipment for; outdoors; two techniques with

揉捏橡皮擦

Kneaded erasers

风景，插图。14.1、15.1、15.2、15.3、23.1、23.2、26.1、26.2、29.1​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

Landscapes, illus. of, 14.1, 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 23.1, 23.2, 26.1, 26.2, 29.1

凭记忆写生

Life drawing, from memory

光、尺寸；的角度；在不同的时间；的影响；插图。的角度；插图。的级别；自然的; 观察；反映

Light, and dimension; angle of; at different times; effects of; illus. of angles of; illus. of levels of; natural; observing; reflected

的线、角度和方向；弯曲的; 徒手绘画；画直；消除铅笔；搜索与

Lines, angle and direction of; curved; drawing freehand; drawing straight; eliminating pencil; searching with

本地色彩、演示；翻译成黑白

Local color, demos, of; translating to black and white

马尔斯蒂克。请参阅 Hand，支持.

Mahlstick. See Hand, support for.

媒体，各种儿童；各种绘画；混合; 户外混合；适应不同的科目

Media, children in various; drawing in various; mixed; outdoors with mixed; suiting subjects to different

嘴，画出；插图。的

Mouth, drawing the; illus. of

鼻子，绘画；插图。的

Noses, drawing; illus. of

圆锥形物体；立方; 圆柱形；球形；对称的

Objects, conical; cubic; cylindrical; spherical; symmetrical

不透明，配件；刷子；特点; 的一致性；控制；干刷混合；插图。的材料；颜料; 静物画中；的适用性；表面；技巧

Opaque, accessories for; brushes for; characteristics of; consistency of; controlling; drybrush blending of; illus. of materials for; pigment; still life in; suitability of; surfaces for; techniques

在户外，选择一个主题；绘画; 用木炭画画；墨水; 材质为不透明；混合媒体；不透明；洗

Outdoors, choosing a subject; drawing; drawing in charcoal; ink; materials for opaque; mixed media; opaque; wash

护垫

Pads

画。参见 颜料。

Paint. See Pigment.

用丙烯绘画

Painting with Acrylics

画刀

Painting knife

纸、木炭；绘图，1.1，3.1；​ 色调; 追踪；使用转移

Paper, charcoal; drawing, 1.1, 3.1; toned; tracing; using transfer

铅笔，1.1、3.1、9.1 ；​​​ 木炭；孔蒂；持有；插图。的; 插图。持有的

Pencils, 1.1, 3.1, 9.1; charcoal; Conté; holding; illus. of; illus. of holding

看法; 立方体; 省略号和; 插图。一点；插图。两点；在静物中。另请参见 眼睛水平。

Perspective; cube in; ellipses and; illus. of one point; illus. of two point; in still life. See also Eye level.

颜料，用于丙烯酸；对于不透明；用于洗涤

Pigment, for acrylic; for opaque; for wash

岩石, 插图. 的, 14.1 , 14.2 , 15.1

Rocks, illus. of, 14.1, 14.2, 15.1

“粗暴”，工作自

“Roughs,” working from

尼古拉斯·鲁克斯

Roukes, Nicholas

海景，插图。的, 14.1 , 14.2

Seascapes, illus. of, 14.1, 14.2

遮荫；观察

Shade; observing

阴影，投射；的边缘

Shadows, cast; edges of

草图，粗炭。另请参阅 工作图 和 原稿。

Sketches, rough charcoal. See also Working drawings and Roughs.

球体，偏离几何；深度和；绘画

Sphere, the, departures from geometric; depth and; drawing

海绵

Sponges

静物，丙烯；安排；木炭；演示，11.1、12.1、22.2、25.1、28.2；​​​​​​​ 透视图；灯光; 不透明；洗

Still lifes, acrylic; arranging; charcoal; demos, of, 11.1, 12.1, 22.2, 25.1, 28.2; diagram of perspective in; lighting; opaque; wash

结构，基本

Structure, basic

学习。参见 图纸，完成。

Studies. See Drawings, finished.

树桩、纸

Stumps, paper

亚克力表面；对于不透明；用于洗涤

Surfaces, for acrylic; for opaque; for wash

工艺，亚克力；干的笔刷; 干刷混合；插图。亚克力材质；插图。不透明的；插图。的洗涤；线性；不透明；洗; 湿法混合；湿对湿

Techniques, acrylic; drybrush; drybrush blending; illus. of acrylic; illus. of opaque; illus. of wash; linear; opaque; wash; wet blending; wet-in-wet

青少年，绘画

Teenagers, drawing

纹理、渲染

Texture, rendering

纹理、平衡；插图。各种；触觉；视觉的

Textures, balancing; illus. of various; tactile; visual

音阶，插图。的; 使用完整的

Tonal scale, illus. of; using the full

音调、安排；插图。木炭；正确放置；准备清洗；使用中间

Tones, arrangement of; illus. of charcoal; laying down correct; preparing wash for; using middle

玉米饼

Tortillons

描图纸，精炼用

Tracing paper, refining with

转印纸，使用

Transfer paper, using

树木，插图。的, 14.1 , 15.1 , 29.1

Trees, illus. of, 14.1, 15.1, 29.1

清洗、附加设备；刷子；用;绘图 平坦的; 分级；插图。技术；颜料搅拌机；​ 的属性；静物画中；表面；运输材料；在户外使用

Wash, additional equipment for; brushes for; drawing with; flat; graded; illus. of techniques; mixer for, pigment; properties of; still life in; surfaces for; transporting materials for; using outdoors

水彩。请参阅 清洗 和 不透明。

Watercolor. See Wash and Opaque.

湿法混合，不透明；插图。不透明的

Wet blending, opaque; illus. of opaque

工作图纸，建立大形状

Working drawings, establishing large shapes with

值和语气；音调

Values, and tones; tonal

消失点；的图

Vanishing points; diagram of

取景器，插图。的; 用一个

Viewfinder, illus. of; using a